Chinese Communist Party

Chinese Communist Party

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nWhy did the Chinese Communist Party abandon relations with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and instead form relationship with the worlds leading capitalist power, 1946-76

nIntroduction

nIn 1949, China witnessed major transformation when the Peoples Republic of China was developed under the leadership of Mao Zedong. In addition, he had played a part in the creation of early types of Chinese communism. Mao assisted to formulate communism and develop the political and military strategy that was instrumental in the success of 1949 civil war (Shen & Xia, 2015). Prior to this period, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and China were the biggest socialist nation across the globe. They had similar ideological policies that encouraged closer ties between the two nations. However, from 1949, the relationships between the USSR and China deteriorated as it accepted policies from the capitalist nations, especially from the West (Qin & Chen, (Eds.) 2016). During this period, the world policies were affected by the cold war. They had a divergent interpretation of Marxism-Leninism and different national interests that affected their relationship. Consequently, ideological and political relations worsened between communist parties in the USSR and Peoples Republic of China (Wong & Yue, 2014). Fortunately, the divisions between the two nations created an opportunity for a better foreign association between China and the United States (Garver, 2015).

nThe Chinese Communist Party under the leadership of Mao Zedong participated in the armed conflict between Japan and China in 1937-45, which was known as the Second Sino-Japanese war (Tudda, 2012). On the other hand, the Chinese government was at the same period engaged in the Chinese Civil War. Chiang Kai-shek led the Nationalist Kuomintang against the Chinese government. However, Mao Zedong refused most of the military and political direction and advice from Joseph Stalin, who was General Secretary of Soviet Union (Shen & Xia, 2015). He argued that it was not practical to apply Leninist revisionary theory in China.

nDuring the World War II, Stalin encouraged Mao Zedong to form a combined anti-Japanese alliance against Japan with Chiang Kai-Shek. Following the end of the War, Stalin guided Mao opposing the possibility of seizing power to Chiang but instead entered negotiations with him since Stalin was signatory to a Treaty of Alliance and Friendship with Nationalist in 1945. Mao followed his advice, but Chiang rejected the seizure of Tannu Uriankhai by the USSR (Qin & Chen, (Eds.) 2016). Stalin was forced to break the agreement forcing the USSR to withdraw from Manchuria. Subsequently, Manchuria was surrendered to China. Moreover, following the end of the Japanese war, USSR promised to give China huge amount of weaponry to boost its military power (Shen & Xia, 2015). Nonetheless, Chang did not benefit from any military assistance from the USSR. On the other hand, the US also did not offer military help to Chang in 1948 during the Berlin Blockade since it had concentrated its efforts in assisting the Berlin people (Harris, 2015). Furthermore, the US also paid more attention in helping Europe to recover from the effects of Second World War. Consequently the Kuomintang Army (KMT) led by Chiang Kai-Shek until it lost Pingjin, Huaihai and Liaoshen Wars against the Chinese government (Garver, 2015).

nFollowing the success of the Communist Party of China (CCP) against the Kuomintang Army (KMT), Mao Zedong visited Moscow in 1949, which helped to formulate Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance, which was signed in 1950. The agreement promised to create a military alliance for 30 years (Harris, 2015). Additionally, China was to benefit from a $300 million loan at low interest. The treaty also forced Soviet to lose some of its naval base in Dalian and Port Arthur. Therefore, Stalin had to search for new port that was free from ice, which culminated in the Korean War (Garver, 2015). Stalin and Mao supported Kim II-Sung of Korea. Nonetheless, the leaders did not pay attention to the idea that the United States was more likely to interfere immediately the war started. Kim II-Sung lacked enough capacity to withstand an onslaught against the US hence; he sought support from China and Soviet Union (Shen & Xia, 2015). China sent its soldiers in Korea while the Soviet Union was required to offer air cover. Although China was suffering from tough military and economic times, it collaborated with the Soviet Union in the Korean War. The cooperation helped to strengthen ties between China and Soviet Union. The Chinese government received the assistance that is more military. For instance, in 1952, Soviet army conducted reconnaissance missions in Beijing using Tupolev Tu-4 (Heilmann & Perry (Eds.). 2011).

nNonetheless, tensions between China and the Soviet Union started to emerge due to application of Marxism. On one hand, Mao Zedong suggested that the original Marxism was based in industrialized European community; hence it was not applicable in the societies comprised of the Asian small-scale farmers (Qin & Chen, (Eds.) 2016). Therefore, he was determined to transform the traditional form of Marxism to Asian format. In this regard, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) advocated for a communist that suited the Chinese needs (Shen & Xia, 2015). In addition, the Soviet form of communism was based on a centralized model of economic growth, concentrating on the high rate of industrialisation. It also allocated the consumer goods to second importance. Nevertheless, by 1958, Mao Zedong had formulated policies for direct development via the organization of Chinese workers (Garver, 2015). These ideas and policies became the foundation for the Great Leap Forward that occurred from 1958 to 1961.

nThe Great Leap Forward was the genesis of conflicts between China and the Soviet Union. From 1958, Mao was persuaded that the USSR was not a reliable partner. First, Khrushchev (successor of Stalin) was not happy with the Great Leap Forward hence he refused to release financial aid to the development of nuclear weapons in China (Wong & Yue, 2014). In addition, he rejected to assist China in 1962 during the Sino-Indian War, but maintained warm relations with India, which Mao did not welcome. Khrushchev also had several meetings with Dwight Eisenhower the US president, aiming to end tensions between Western and Eastern powers. Therefore, Chinese communist party (CCP) under Mao believed that the USSR was too lenient to the western powers, despite the occasional aggressive stance against them (Heilmann & Perry (Eds.). 2011). The CCP thought that the Soviet Communist Party was pre-occupied by the Soviet-American cooperation aiming to dominate the world.

nSino-Soviet relationships eventually collapsed in 1962, which forced the Chinese Communist Party to initiate stronger and new ties with the Western nations particularly the US. Therefore, in 1972, President Richard Nixon held a meeting with his Chinese counterpart Mao Zedong (Garver, 2015). Some of the factors that escalated this conflict include Cultural Revolution, national interests, border wars, geopolitical pragmatism and international communist rivalry (Tudda, 2012).

nInterpretation of Marxism

nKarl Marx is considered the father of communism, which is also referred to as Marxism. However, communist nations such as China and USSR developed new versions of communism. For instance, Leninism was introduced into the Soviet Union leading to Marxism-Leninism policies in the country (Wong & Yue, 2014). On the other hand, CCP under the leadership of Mao Zedong established Maoism, which further created divisions between the two communist nations. Based on Marxism principles, the proletarian is the working class (Shen & Xia, 2015). In addition, the proletarian revolution can only take place in a capitalist and industrialized economy. He suggested that in such economies would eventually realize they are working for the benefit of the upper and middle classes. Therefore, they can rebel against their employers and establish a communist society (Harris, 2015). Based on Marx argument, nations such as USSR lacked the right conditions for a proletarian revolution since it heavily reliant on agriculture and had poor industrialization (Qin & Chen, (Eds.) 2016). Nonetheless, Lenin suggested that an autocratic and underdeveloped country such as USSR would be leading in communist (Cohen, 2015). He also introduced Marxism-Leninism, which revised the Marxist theory of proletarians autocracy into autocracy of the elite Communist Party. Lenin recommended the concept of vanguardism, which assumed that a socialist revolution could only be executed by an elite system of rebels referred to as vanguard (Tudda, 2012). Pursuant to Marxism-Leninism, the Communist Party (vanguard) would initiate the revolution, establish a single party communist republic and prohibit all kinds of opposition parties (Garver, 2015). Following the death of Lenin, Stalin succeeded him hence transformed the Soviet Communist Party into a personal socialist tyranny.

nMao Zedong also had similar encounters with Marxism just like Lenin, which led to the formulation of Maoism in CCP (Leese, 2011). Following the end of Second World War, China was less industrialized country but was composed of many peasant people in the rural areas (Wong & Yue, 2014). Mao was also opposed to the principles of Marxism that assumed that socialist revolution could only be accomplished in an industrialized economy (Harris, 2015). CCP was based on Maoism, which concentrated on the mobilization of rural peasant as compared to urban industrial employees. Mao Zedong advocated this form of Marxism because he was previously a small-scale farmer. In addition, CCP opposed the Marxism-Leninism in USSR terming it dictatorial (Shen & Xia, 2015). On the contrary, it supported Maoism noting that it was best suited for the Chinese people and conditions. For instance, it frequently attacked the Soviet Communist Party for its ideologies on social-imperialism. Similarly, it alleged that the Soviet Union was an adversary of global revolution. Therefore, the differences between Soviet communism and Chinese Communist Parties ideologies created tensions between these countries (Tudda, 2012).

nKhrushchev increased strains between CPP and Soviet Communism Parties. After succeeding Stalin as the USSR leader, he started the process of de-Stalinization process. In this regard, he changed and denounced most of the policies, particularly foreign cooperation initiated by Stalin (Wong & Yue, 2014). However, Maoism was modelled on Stalin policies. Furthermore, direct criticism of Stalins policies by Khrushchev created mistrust between the two nations. The CPP drafted a document that criticized new ideas presented by Khrushchev (Garver, 2015). It also reiterated its support to Stalinism, which the Chinese communist party wanted to, executed and was committed to while at the same time safeguard warm relation with the Soviet party. Rebellions that started in USSR such as Poland and Hungarian revolution in mid-1950s worried the leadership of CCP in China (Qin & Chen, (Eds.) 2016). On the other hand, the CPP was convinced that the USSR was not a reliable partner; hence it started to welcome western capitalism in the country (Tudda, 2012).

nCultural Revolution Differences

nDifferences in terms of the Cultural Revolution between the Chinese Communist Party and Soviet Communism promoted the split between China and the USSR. In 1966, Mao started the Cultural Revolution to control the spread of Russian system of bureaucratic socialist. Subsequently, universities and schools were shut down as learners were structured into Red Guard – which was composed of radicals at grass-root levels (Shen & Xia, 2015). Nonetheless, the process led to violence and chaos in different parts of the country as Red Guard lacked proper leadership. Eventually, it was suppressed by the Chinese army and Mao concentrated in restructuring the CPP. On the other hand, Cultural Revolution broke and stressed the political associations between China and the USSR (Garver, 2015). On the contrary, it warmed up the relations between China and western capitalists such as the US, and Britain.

nHowever, despite stressed relationships between USSR and China, with regard to interpretation of Marxism, Mao and Khrushchev assisted North Vietnam in Vietnam War (Wong & Yue, 2014). Mao Zedong described the war as farmworkers revolution against overseas or external imperialism. The Chinese allowed Soviet soldiers to deliver material support to Vietnam via their country (Harris, 2015). Moreover, the Republic of Albania, which was a communist nation, also advanced the Maoist ideas that advocated for peasant revolution.

nNational Interests

nThe differences in the national interests between China and the USSR escalated tensions between the two nations. From 1956, the ideological differences between Soviet Community party and Chinese communist party increased which led to small-scale conflicts between China and USSR (Wong & Yue, 2014). Consequently, the Red Guards ambushed the USSR embassy in Beijing in 1967. Previously, the Chinese government had revisited the conflict of the Russo-Chinese border. China complained that some of its territories such as Tsarist Russia were annexed by USSR (Qin & Chen, (Eds.) 2016). The demarcation was enacted by the Qing Dynasty through the strategies of unequal treaties. The border was established through treaties such as the Convention of Peking and Treaty of Aigun of 1860 and 1858 (Shen & Xia, 2015).

nAlthough China did not demand for the return of its annexed territories, it did not officially request the Soviet Union to confess that this was a historical injustice against the Chinese people (Leese, 2011). On the other hand, USSR administration ignored the issue. This encouraged the Red Guard to launch attacks aimed at restoring the doctrinal convention on behalf of the country (Garver, 2015). However, this triggered civil wars in some areas, but it was quelled through the Peoples Liberation Army. Mao also encouraged political equilibrium intended to safeguard the countrys military and strategic susceptibility. Therefore, he welcomed the idea of introducing semi-capitalist structures, which mainly promoted stronger diplomatic and commercial association with western powers (Walder, 2015).

nBorder Wars

nBorder conflicts also were a source of conflicts between CCP and Soviet communist party. For instance, in 1968, the Soviet troops had gathered along the 4300 km Russian-Chinese border, particularly at the Xinjiang borderline in northwestern parts of the country where they could easily prompt Turkic secessionists to insurgency (Harris, 2015). By 1961, the Soviet Union had more than 20 planes and 12 divisions in their border with China. Notably, in 1968, there were more than 120 missiles, 1200 planes, and 25 divisions along that border. By then, China was inferior to the USSR in terms of military capacity (Wong & Yue, 2014). The continued border row between the two nations increased strains. Reports indicated that the USSR planned to attack China. However, China received much-needed support from the US when President John F. Kennedy warned Soviet Union that an attack against Chinese would lead to a new world war.

nSubsequently, this forced the Soviet Union to stop its plan to launch a nuclear attack against its communist neighbour (Qin & Chen, (Eds.) 2016). Following this threat, China initiated a mission to advance its nuclear research in Chongqing and developed full-scale underground housings, such as Underground city in Beijing, and Underground Project 131 for its military personnel (Walder, 2015). The border conflicts were increased further when USSR deleted the Chinese names such as Suchan, Tetyukhe and Iman from its territories and replaced them with Russian names such as Dalnegorsk and Dalnerechensk. Maoism noted that he believed that the USSR was more precarious as compared to the western capitalist such as the US (Shen & Xia, 2015). Both political parties accused each other of dictatorship and total negligence of the living standards of their people because they paid more attention on the defence expenditure. From 1969, China felt the need to build stronger ties with the capitalist world as opposed to the USSR (Heilmann & Perry (Eds.). 2011).

nGeopolitical Realism

nSince 1969, following the border conflicts between the USSR and China, the socialist combatants withdrew. The USSR Minister Kosygin Alexei clandestinely visited China and held a meeting with Prime Minister Enlai Zhou. This helped to develop an agreement, which enabled the USSR and the Peoples Republic of China to approach the issue of border (Qin & Chen, (Eds.) 2016). Despite failing to provide an amicable solution to the boarder conflicts, diplomatic communications between Moscow and Beijing were restored. Moreover, the Chinese Communist Party realized that it could not sustain a fight against the US and Soviet Union as well as dealing with internal conflicts (Cohen, 2015). Furthermore, the Vietnam War and anti-American questions were sustained.

nMore notably, Mao Zedong was convinced that the Soviet Union posed a bigger threat to Chinas development than the US did (Heilmann & Perry (Eds.). 2011). Therefore, he realistically pursued reconciliation with the United States in countering the Soviet Union. This culminated with President Nixon visit to Beijing, which created war Sino-American ties. He met with Mao Zedong and Zhou (Walder, 2015). The USSR was diplomatically upset by the new relationship between China and the US; hence, it sought a summit conference with President Nixon (Garver, 2015). Subsequently, it facilitated the signing of the Moscow-Beijing-Washington diplomatic association, which concentrated on tripolar environment. However, the Sino-American treaty helped to reduce anti-American propaganda in China. On the other hand, it facilitated criticism of social-imperialism in the USSR; hence soviet communists were viewed as CPP enemies (Cohen, 2015).

nRivalry between Communist Parties

nThe ideological differences between CCP and Soviets Communist Party were evident in the 1970s. Their differences were extended to the Middle East and Africa, where China and Soviet Union supported and funded conflicting states, militias and political parties. For instance, they were responsible for financing the Ogden War between Somalia and Ethiopia in 1976-77. Others included conflicts between Palestinian populations, the Mozambican Civil War (1976) and Angolan Civil War (1975) (Heilmann & Perry (Eds.). 2011).

nConclusion

nChinese Communist Party and Soviet Communist Party led the governments of China and USSR respectively from 1946-76. However, sharp divisions started to emerge with regard to interpretation of Marxism. This created ideological differences between the two nations. In addition, divergent national interests were the cause of division. Furthermore, the Cultural Revolution in China angered the USSR. Similarly, border conflicts between the two nations led to poor relationships (Qin & Chen, (Eds.) 2016). Therefore, China established a warm relationship with the western capitalist as the USSR could not be trusted.

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nReferences

nCohen, W. I. (2015). The United States and China During the Cold War. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History.

nGarver, J. W. (2015). The Sino-American Alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War Strategy in Asia. Routledge.

nHarris, N. (2015). Mandate of Heaven: Marx and Mao in Modern China. Haymarket Books.

nHeilmann, S., & Perry, E. J. (Eds.). (2011). Mao’s invisible hand: the political foundations of adaptive governance in China (p. 320). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center.

nLeese, D. (2011). Mao cult: rhetoric and ritual in China’s Cultural Revolution. Cambridge University Press.

nQin, Y., & Chen, Z. (Eds.). (2016). Future in Retrospect: China’s Diplomatic History Revisited (Vol. 2). World Scientific.

nShen, Z., & Xia, Y. (2015). Mao and the Sino–Soviet Partnership, 1945–1959: A New History. Lexington Books.

nTudda, C. (2012). A Cold War Turning Point: Nixon and China, 1969-1972. LSU Press.

nWalder, A. G. (2015). China Under Mao. Harvard University Press.

nWong, P. N., & Yue, W. K. R. (2014). US-China Containment and Counter-Containment in Southeast Asia. African and Asian Studies, 13(1-2), 33-58.