3850 words English 7-day order

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nApproaches to Grammar Teachings

nIntroduction

nLanguage system is known as grammar. According to Nassaji and Fotos (2011), grammar is the mental system of rules that enables individuals to develop and understand the sentences and words of their language. It also provides meanings, which are not simply inferable from the immediate setting. Most importantly, grammar enable humans to use language to explain what is happening in the world with regard to where, when and how things happen (Nassaji and Fotos 2011, p.3). Furthermore, grammar promotes human interaction because it helps to do various actions. There are two main approaches of teaching grammar, which include deductive and inductive approaches. The main difference between these two approaches is the responsibility of the teacher in class (Tomlinson 2011, p.15).

nThe Deductive Approach

nThe deductive approach is commonly referred to as rule driven learning because it begins with a rule presentation. In this respect, the approach requires that theories, concepts, principles, and rules be presented first to the learner. Consequently, it is followed by examples that apply the rules. After presentation of the rule of grammar, the learner participates with manipulation and study of examples (Rutherford 2014, p.10). The approach is developed from the idea that logical reasoning functions from broad perspective to specific perspective. The deductive approach is widely used in teaching language and is highly used in self-study and course grammar books. The approach safeguards the principle that when teaching grammar, a teacher should present grammatical rules to the learner then use examples of sentences (Nassaji and Fotos 2011, p.5).

nAfter the student is able to interpret the rules, he/she is required to apply the rules following different examples of sentences. Therefore, presenting the grammatical rules means that learners attention is directed towards the problem discussed. Hinkel ed. (2011) argues that deductive approach helps students to be in control when practicing. In addition, it helps them to remove fear when establishing an improper conclusion with regard to how language is functioning (Cattell ed. 2012).

nAccording to Michael Swan the deductive approach, use the some guidelines. The first guideline shows that the grammatical rules must be true. In this respect, the rules should resemble the reality it is explaining. In addition, the grammatical rules must clearly indicate the limits when using a particular form (Hinkel ed. 2011). Furthermore, the rules must be presented clearly because lack of clarity leads to ambiguity. Most notably, they should utilize concepts that learners are conversant. Finally, the rules should be relevant to the language being used (Smagorinsky, Wilson, and Moore 2011).

nMost essentially, when the teacher is using deductive approach, he/she should present through examples. Similarly, the examples used should be short in order to facilitate learners comprehension (Rutherford 2014, p.13). Moreover, the deductive approach requires that teachers should use examples that help students to have an opportunity to personalize the grammatical rules.

nHowever, the deductive approach has various advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of this approach is that it provides for straightforward presentation hence it is not time-consuming. Different grammatical rules particularly rules of form, are quickly and easily discussed as compared to drawn from examples. In this regard, it facilitates more time for application and practice (Hinkel 2013, p.34). The deductive approach also acknowledges the maturity and intelligence of many such as adult-students. It respects the responsibility of cognitive process in acquisition of language. The deductive approach benefits the learners because it confirms their expectation related to classroom learning especially for those with a logical learning technique. It also permits the teacher to cope with language point as they emerge and arrange them early enough (Hinkel ed. 2011). The deductive approach also facilitates various application or practice examples to be given immediately.

nThe disadvantages of deductive approach are that most young learners are put off when lessons begin with presentation of grammar. The majority of young learners lack adequate metalanguage such as grammar terminology (Smagorinsky, Wilson, and Moore 2011, p.21). Similarly, these students may not be in a position to interpret the concepts utilized. Moreover, it is disadvantageous because explanation of grammar promotes a transmission-style, teacher-fronted classroom (Campoy, Cubillo, Belles-Fortuno and Gea-Valor eds. 2010). Therefore, the explanation of a teacher is dependent of student interaction and involvement. The explanations through this method are rarely memorable as compared to other types of presentation for instance demonstration (Tomlinson 2011, p.20). Deductive approach promotes the assumption that learning languages is a matter of understanding the rules.

nThe inductive approach

nAn inductive approach is derived from inductive thinking arguing that a cognitive progression develop from specifics such as data, measurements and observations to generalities such as theories, concepts, laws, and rules (Littlemore 2010, p.2). In this regard, through inductive approach, learners are required to observe different specific instances and develop a concept or principle from those observations (Nassaji and Fotos 2011, p.10). Therefore, this approach is commonly referred to as the rule-discovery method. It argues that a teacher should begin by explaining examples of a given sentence when teaching grammar.

nIn this case, students will identify grammatical rules from given examples. The grammatical rules presentation can be through spoken or written materials. According to Smagorinsky, Wilson, and Moore (2011), the inductive approach attempt to use robust reward value by providing meaning, clarity and order to different experiences. The approach involves students through actively engaging in their own guidelines. The inductive approach promotes a learner to establish his/her own cognitive set of strategies for performing tasks. Therefore, the inductive approach tries to identify grammatical rules indirectly where the learner is stimulated to complete the rules on his/her own (Smagorinsky, Wilson, and Moore 2011, p.7).

nThere are various advantages and disadvantages of the inductive approach in grammar teaching. Since, inductive approach helps learners to discover rules for themselves; they have a higher chance of fitting in their mental structure as compared to rules given by their teacher (Hinkel 2013, p.45). Consequently, the grammatical rules become more serviceable, memorable and meaningful. Moreover, learners use their mental effort that produces more cognitive depth, which ultimately generates higher degree of memorability. It also prevents learners to become passive students because they actively participate in learning process (Littlemore 2010, p.24). Consequently, learners become motivated and more attentive in class. Inductive approach also favours problem-solving and pattern-recognition techniques (Steen, Dorst, Herrmann, Kaal and Krennmayr 2010). In this respect, it is specifically appropriate for students who need this type of challenge. The teacher-student relationship promotes collaborative problem solving abilities. Moreover, students benefit from many chances for more language practice. Most importantly, this practice promotes self-reliance among learners because they develop abilities to deal with tasks for themselves. Therefore, it enhances learners autonomy, which is very important in learning process (Fernández 2011).

nHowever, inductive approach has several disadvantages. For instance, it requires more energy and time in the process of identifying rules. In this case, it learners are misled into assuming that language learning must involve rules. Additionally, the approach uses a lot of time that could be used in other productive purposes. On the other hand, learners may identify an incorrect rule (Nassaji and Fotos 2011, p.12). Similarly, the type of rule hypothesized may be too narrow or too broad, which affects its application. The issue is further disadvantageous because learners may not test their hypothesis such as through practice examples.

nTeachers also experiences challenges when planning a lesson. Teachers are required to organize and choose the data wisely in order to offer guidance to learners aiming to formulate accurate grammatical rules. Nonetheless, when data is easily organized, it is difficult to formulate grammatical rules. Furthermore, the inductive approach is not suitable to students who lack analytical learning style hence they need to be told the grammatical rule (Littlemore 2010, p.10).

nBased on research on the relative advantages of inductive and deductive approaches, there have been inconclusive findings. Deductive approach has short-term benefit because study revealed that some grammatical rules should be given to learners rather than being discovered. In addition, according to Richards and Rodgers (2014), many learners select deductive approaches in grammar presentation. However, after learners are exposed to inductive approach, they tend to prefer this approach since they can see the advantages of solving tasks on their own. Ultimately, students realize the need of developing autonomy, which is very important for self-directing learning (Richards and Rodgers 2014).

nHowever, teachers can use the minimal pair approach, which helps to solve the problem of inadequate economy for propagative situation. In this regard, the minimal pair combines best characteristics of a rule-discovery and rule-driven learning approaches. Using the minimal pair approach is also easy to set-up and plan (Hegelheimer and Fisher 2013, p.35). Additionally, it has higher efficacy level because it is dependent on choice of sample sentences. Nonetheless, it faces challenges such as lack of context that may produce wrong conclusion for students.

nAssociating inductive and deductive approaches to Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theory

nInductive and deductive approaches are associated to acquisition and learning in the SLA theory. The deductive approach is associated to the process of conscious learning where this approach attempts to focus on correction of error and explicit rules presentation. The main reason why it is applied is because it has an elegant and efficient strategy to mobilize and present already understood rule. In most cases, the deductive approach is utilized in adult learning.

nUsing the deductive approach, a teacher first teaches the rule and then allows learners to uses it to deal with tasks given (Richards and Rodgers 2014). The presentation of explicit rule can promote the confidence of learners in performing different tasks. For successful application of deductive approach, the teacher should provide a wide range of exercises (Hegelheimer and Fisher 2013, p.34).

nOn the contrary, the inductive approach is associated to subconscious process of learning. It is similar to principle of acquisition of knowledge. Through this approach, students learn the language system such as sentence or grammar rules as a child learns his/her first or second language (Cattell ed. 2012). Therefore, it facilitates significant interaction i.e. natural communication which is crucial than form of language. The inductive approach does not emphasis the explicit teaching and error correction of the rule (Smagorinsky, Wilson, and Moore 2011, p.23). Most notably, the approach easily understands utterances. In inductive approaches, students unconsciously learn the rule.

nVarious researches have tried to study which of the approaches is the best. However, debate exists among researcher in the context of English as Second Language (ESL) and English as First Language (EFL) because both have their importance in learner progress. For instance, studies indicate that some students achieve better in inductive language classes. However, other students perform well in deductive classes (Richards and Rodgers 2014). The difference is related to various neurological mechanisms among learning.

nGrammatical rules can be taught through deductive or inductively approach depending on the structure of language. Some of the grammatical rules should be taught deductively while others should use inductive approach. Additionally, the cognitive style of the learner plays a major role in determining the effective approach of presentation (Hegelheimer and Fisher 2013, p.42). However, a teacher can choose either inductive or deductive approach but he/she need to consider the context of EFL/ESL.

nConclusion

nThere are two different instructional approaches, which are deductive and inductive. Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages. However, the main difference between these approaches is the responsibility of a language teacher. In the deductive approach, a teacher introduces a lesson and explains the grammatical rules to learners. In return, learners are expected to apply the grammatical rules to complete given tasks. On the other hand, the inductive approach is student-centred where learners are required to identify grammatical rules on their own. In this approach, the teacher does not participate in the discovery of rules.

nQuestion Two

nVideo Assessment: Hes been to Turkey

nIntroduction

nThe video provides an opportunity for students to construct sentences with the guidance of the teacher. The teacher introduces the lesson using pictures and diagrams that help the students to be attentive. In this case, he asks questions to the student concerning the diagram on the board. In addition, the teacher uses context in order to guide the meaning. In this teacher asks questions to the students in order to assess their understanding on the issue at hand. The teacher also utilizes pronunciation practice in the lesson where he asks the learners to pronounce the words (O’Brien 2013). Similarly, he also helps the students to make appropriate pronunciations. Most importantly, the teacher effectively uses substitutions, which helps the students to practice the form of the sentences. Students are given an opportunity to construct sentences following questions from their colleagues (Carlsen and Willis 2012, p.33). Blackboard reviews are also used in this lesson aiming to demonstrate important lessons. Students further practice to construct more sentences and make appropriate pronunciations. Finally, students participate in dialogue building amongst themselves with the help of the teacher. Therefore, the lesson goes a long way in helping the students to learn.

nCritique of the Video

nThe teacher uses various stages of skills-based lesson aiming to develop and prioritize transferable skills. The effectiveness of various stages of the lesson enhances engagement, reflection and collaboration between the teacher and student. In this respect, the teacher uses starter such as diagrams and pictures to facilitate engagement (Callander and Buttriss 2010, p.7). In addition, in course of the lesson, the teacher introduces activities, which promote collaboration between him and students and among students themselves. Some of the activities included group works. On the other hand, the teacher uses plenary to help the students to reflect on what they have learnt. For instance, they participate in presentations, which boost their confidence (Wallace 2010, p.18).

nThe video lesson begins by the teacher providing an example of a sentence where he teaches the grammatical item. For instance, he uses the sentence “Hes been to Turkey”. In addition, the teacher introduces activities that are aimed at building the knowledge of learners on the grammatical items he is teaching (O’Brien 2013). In this regard, the teacher asks the learners to answer to the questions orally, for example, he asks whether they know the person who was in Turkey. Questions asked in this part of the lesson help to encourage critical thinking. In addition, questions asked by the teacher assist him to assess the knowledge of his learners. They also help to enhance comprehension (Callander and Buttriss 2010, p.9). In the video students participated in asking questions amongst themselves, which led to discussion and interactions. Consequently, the self-confidence of the learners is stimulated when applying the grammatical concept learned through communication. Most importantly, the teacher in the video does not tell his learners the type of grammatical concept he is intending to explain (Watts 2010).

nMoreover, the teacher uses leading questions that are asked through W-H questions and yes/no questions. Through the w-h questions, the teacher is able to help the student in pronunciations and notations (Carlsen and Willis 2012, p.36). The teacher plays an important role in this lesson because he asks the questions in a comprehensive statement to the students. In this case, the teacher in this video is able to implicitly guide the learners to the complete sentences form applying grammatical concept in focus. Therefore, the confidence of the student is built in applying the rule. Additionally, through speaking, the awareness of the learners is raised with regard to communicative assignments. The teacher also uses short conversations through past tense in order to enhance the students awareness (Watts 2010, p.35).

nIn this video, the teacher uses model sentences, which enable the learners to concentrate on important elements in the sentences, for example, the form of the verb, place and time signals. After focusing on the important words in the sentences, they are able to understand on the type of grammatical concept that they are going to learn. The action helps to support for the leading questions i.e. “Hes been to Turkey”. The main aim of this action is to help the students to internalize the grammatical concept easily in a written format. Therefore, building the knowledge of the students of grammatical concepts offers motivation and apperception to them (Callander and Buttriss 2010, p.17). They also practice pronunciation of words and sentences. Consequently, they are ready and able to learn from the teacher the grammatical item. Through this activity, the learners participate in teaching via communicative grammar.

nThe teacher also uses the sentences in order to produce the function of the grammatical concept taught supplemented with examples. At this stage, the teacher uses substitutions in order to help learners practice the forms (Carlsen and Willis 2012, p.40). Therefore, students are provides with explicit explanation of the language focus applies. In this regard, they are able to utilize the language focus in communicative backgrounds in the right manner. Furthermore, the teacher clearly tells the learners certain characteristics of the model sentence, for instance the verb form, past tense, time signals and place (Baldwin 2011, p.25). Therefore, the students were prepared for different tasks after the explanation/presentation of the teacher.

nMost essentially, this step consolidates the comprehension of the student on what they have understood in the previous presentations (Wallace and Bentley 2011). Therefore, this stage promotes the confidence of the students in applying the grammatical concept communicatively. Furthermore, the teacher uses teaching aids such as posters that helps the students to identify the functions of grammatical concept (Wallace 2010, p.19).

nThe teacher in the video also familiarizes learners with the grammatical item using exercises and practice. At this level, the teacher gives exercises to learners and assesses their comprehension. Additionally, the teacher encourages active participation of all students in the class. The teacher begins by providing tasks through written sentences (Krulik and Rudnick 2013, p. 4). The learners are instructed to give answers using complete sentences depending on the type of questions they are asked. The main reason for learners to give their own oral answer is to ensure that they understand on grammatical item that the teacher is intending to teach. Moreover, the teacher uses this opportunity to correct the problem of verb form completion (Baldwin 2011, p.27). The tasks given to the learners help those to be more familiar with the verb form utilized in the sentence.

nMost notably, when the students are familiar with the form of verb it helps them to understand the meaning and grammatical rule (Callander and Buttriss 2010, p.22). The tasks given in the video also helps the student to use correct tenses and they become alert when using them. The teacher in the video also uses the responses of the students to correct and recognize errors. Some of the errors include use of tenses and construction of proper sentences (Wallace 2013, p.24). The tasks allow the students to compose or construct sentences in the right tense function. Therefore, they are able to exercise with both function-based and form-based exposure. In this respect, learners are able to utilize the grammatical rule in speaking (Baldwin 2011, p.33). This part of the video is intended to give the student an opportunity to practice both functions and forms of grammatical concept learned. The objective was to help them apply the grammatical concepts correctly in speaking and writing.

nIn the video the teacher have a session of blackboard review, which is aimed at assessing the comprehension of learners towards the grammatical concepts being taught. The teacher presents assessments to evaluate learners comprehension on whether they have fully grasped the lesson. The form of assessment is in terms of sentence construction (Krulik and Rudnick 2013, p. 10). The main objective of this session is to facilitate the learners to utilize the idea of grammatical concepts effectively. However, the session is efficient in helping the learners to work individually. On the other hand, this session also assist the teacher to restructure his grammar lesion in order to enable the students to use the lessons taught (Cheminais 2015, p.5).

nThe video also uses dialogue building and further reading sessions in order to expand the comprehension of learners of the grammatical concepts they are taught. In this respect, the teacher uses group work and dialogue between students aiming to reinforce the items and to promote interaction between one another (Wallace and Bentley 2011, p.13). The teacher allows his students to use this chance to work independently. Additionally, he set specific set of tasks derived from the lesson as an assignment (Carlsen and Willis 2012, p.47). The session also facilitates active roles of the learners such through giving explanations, providing opinions, asking questions and listening. In this respect, the learners in this video are required to develop dialogue and write it down. This video session help the students to apply their cognitive capacity based on the grammatical rules. Furthermore, the assignment inspires the learners to differentiate between grammatical rules they were taught in class and what they already know. Therefore, dialogue-building assignment encourages the learners to apply their analytical skills (O’Brien 2013).

nThe skill-based learning used in this video is important because it gives the students an opportunity to utilize their cognitive skills. In addition, the steps used by the teacher in this video provide for better interaction with students, which facilitate quality learning. Similarly, the technique used in this video enhances involvement of learners in communicative assignments (Cheminais 2015, p.6). Most importantly, the students actively participate in the process of learning hence they do not become passive beneficiary of tasks. The video also promote the ability to solve problems from the learners.

nMoreover, the technique used in this video help the students to identify grammatical rules that boost their self-reliance and learning independence (Watts 2010, p.37). Additionally, the technique used in this video respect the maturity and intelligence of students especially adult learners. It also recognizes the importance of cognitive processes in acquisition and learning of languages (Wallace, Cave and Berry 2010, p.29). Furthermore, the skilled-based learning in this video attempts to link knowledge learners already possesses with new grammatical rules. The procedure in this video is also beneficial because it tries to assess the progress of learners in understanding the grammatical rule via personal evaluation in the process of learning (Wassermann 2012, p.21).

nAlthough skilled-based learning as used in this video is effective, it offers some gaps. For instance, the teacher will be required to develop materials and data that are used in the lesson making it time consuming (Callander and Buttriss 2010, p.30). In addition, the lesson features high level of intensity hence it is energy consuming. The teacher is also required to guide the students to comprehensive application of grammatical concepts.

nConclusion

nThe main aim of teaching grammar is to help learners with information on how to improve their communication through a certain language. Therefore, grammar teachers play an important role in enabling students to know how to write, read, speak, and listen without any problem when using their language (Cheminais 2015, p.13). In this respect, language teachers should use innovative and creative measures in order to teach grammar and achieve set goals. Therefore, the most important role of a teacher is to provide an opportunity to learners, which will help them discover grammatical concepts (Krulik and Rudnick 2013, p. 14). The teacher should use techniques that promote active participation in class and application of analytical skills in class. Ultimately, the learner will be able to develop self-reliance and independent thinking which stimulate good learning process.

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nReferences

nBaldwin, P., 2011. With drama in mind. 2nd ed. London: Continuum International Pub. Group.

nCallander, A. and Buttriss, J., 2010. Thinking skills for SEN learners. London: Optimus Education.

nCampoy, M.C., Cubillo, M.C.C., Belles-Fortuno, B. and Gea-Valor, M.L. eds., 2010. Corpus-based approaches to English language teaching. A&C Black.

nCarlsen, R. and Willis, D., 2012. Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference annual. 3rd ed. Chesapeake, Va: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.

nCattell, R. ed., 2012. The scientific use of factor analysis in behavioral and life sciences. Springer Science & Business Media.

nCheminais, R., 2015. Special educational needs for qualified and trainee teachers. London: Routledge.

nFernández, C., 2011. Approaches to grammar instruction in teaching materials: A study in current L2 beginning-level Spanish textbooks. Hispania, 94(1), pp.155-170.

nHegelheimer, V. and Fisher, D., 2013. Grammar, writing, and technology: A sample technology-supported approach to teaching grammar and improving writing for ESL learners. CALICO journal, 23(2), pp.257-279.

nHinkel, E. ed., 2011. Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (Vol. 2). Routledge.

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nKrulik, S. and Rudnick, J., 2013. Roads to reasoning. 2nd ed. Chicago, Ill.: Wright Group/McGraw-Hill.

nLittlemore, J., 2010. Applying cognitive linguistics to second language learning and teaching. Ibérica, 20, pp.167-204.

nNassaji, H. and Fotos, S.S., 2011. Teaching grammar in second language classrooms: Integrating form-focused instruction in communicative context. Routledge.

nO’Brien, P., 2013. Using science to develop thinking skills at key stage 3. 3rd ed. London: David Fulton.

nRichards, J.C. and Rodgers, T.S., 2014. Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge University Press.

nRutherford, W.E., 2014. Second language grammar: Learning and teaching. Routledge.

nSmagorinsky, P., Wilson, A.A. and Moore, C., 2011. Teaching grammar and writing: A beginning teacher’s dilemma. English Education, pp.262-292.

nSteen, G.J., Dorst, A.G., Herrmann, J.B., Kaal, A.A. and Krennmayr, T., 2010. Metaphor in usage. Cognitive Linguistics, 21(4), pp.765-796.

nTomlinson, B., 2011. Materials development in language teaching. Cambridge University Press.

nWallace, B. and Bentley, R., 2011. Teaching thinking skills across the middle years. 3rd ed. London: David Fulton in association with the National Association for Able Children in Education.

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nWallace, B., 2013. Using History to Develop Thinking Skills at Key Stage 2. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.

nWallace, B., Cave, D. and Berry, A., 2010. Teaching problem-solving and thinking skills through science. 2nd ed. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

nWassermann, S., 2012. Teaching for thinking today. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

nWatts, G., 2010. Personal, learning and thinking skills at Key stage 3. London: Optimus Education.