1Characteristics of human body

The Body Organization

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nCharacteristics of human body

nIntroduction

nThe body engage in a wide range of processes in order to ensure that it survives. Therefore, these processes play a crucial role in the life of human being. The biological processes are critical part for the body because they help it to function efficiently. Various biological characteristics are involved in the survival of human body. They include movement, reproduction, nutrition or feeding, responsiveness and sensitivity, excretion, and respiration (internal and external) (Wingerd 2014). The paper will discuss these characteristics, which are important in the human body with appropriate examples.

nRespiration

nRespiration is a process, which helps to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide gases in and from the body. External respiration is a process of transportation of gas between the outer environment and respiratory system such as the lungs. In other words, it is referred to as breathing where oxygen is inhaled into the lungs from air while carbon dioxide is exhaled to the air from lungs. It happens before internal respiration (Roberts 2010). Internal respiration is a process in which a human tissue or cell release carbon dioxide to the blood and absorb oxygen from the blood. The process is also referred to as cellular respiration (Patton and Thibodeau 2010). In addition, this process is used to produce energy in cells.

nNutrition

nNutrition is the process where human body take food as part of it dietary requirement. Human body needs a balanced diet, which contain carbohydrates, proteins, fats, mineral salts and vitamins as well as water (McDowell 2011). Every category of food plays an essential role in the well-being of the body. Proper nutrition provide healing, body building, sufficient energy and good health.

nExcretion

nThe waste materials are released from the human body through the process of excretion. Other processes in the body produce the waste materials. For instance, metabolic process is responsible for the release of carbon dioxide as waste product. Skin, kidney and colon release urine and faeces from the body after the process of digestion. Waste products must be eliminated from the body because they can be toxic (Wingerd 2014). In addition, excretion is important for the body because the waste products are not beneficial to the body.

nMovement

nOne of the regular characteristics of human beings is that they have the ability to move from one place to another. Unlike plants, human beings have the capacity to move both partially and wholly (Patton and Thibodeau 2010). Partial movement encompasses shifting the position of a single part or several parts of the body, for instance raising hands. On the contrary, whole movement involves complete change of position for instance, walking. Movement is a crucial characteristic of human body because it facilitates various activities such as feeding (Roberts 2010). In addition, it enables human beings to move away from danger by running away from their enemies.

nResponsiveness and Sensitivity

nSensitivity is ability of the body to feel the environmental changes. Responsiveness on the other hand, is ability of the body to react to environmental changes. The two processes function together because the body should have the ability to sense and react swiftly to changes (Marieb and Hoehn 2013). For instance, when human beings sense cold, they respond by wearing a pull over. In addition, when he/she sense hunger he/she looks for food (Patton and Thibodeau 2010). Therefore, sensitivity and responsiveness are very important for human body because they enable human being to adapt to a particular condition.

nGrowth

nCell differentiation helps human beings to produce physical changes. Fertilization is the first stage of human growth. In these cases, growth encompasses increase in size of the body at a particular stage. Growth is important in human being because it helps him/her to perform different tasks (Patton and Thibodeau 2010).

nReproduction

nReproduction is a process in which human being produce offspring. Therefore, reproduction helps continuation of generations. The offspring is produced by combination of genetic information of two parents. In addition, reproduction in human being is sexual where young ones are produced through giving birth (Wingerd 2014). Moreover, reproduction is important because it help humans to replicate themselves.

nStructures found in the Cell

n2.1 Peripheral Proteins

nSome peripheral proteins form markers or antigen on the surface of the plasma membrane of some specialised cells, which aids in cell recognition as in blood groups and in the immune response. In this case, T cells are responsible for cell-mediated immunity in the body. On the surface of the plasma membrane, they contain t-cell receptor (Patton and Thibodeau 2010). In addition, specialized cells such as gamma delta T cells play a crucial role in immune response because they are able to present antigens. The special feature in T cell enables it to identify a healthy cells and infected cells. They are able to initiate immune responses when they detect cancerous or infected cells. T cells are one type of white blood cells (Roberts 2010).

n2.1 Phospholipids bi-layer in Plasma Membrane

nThe plasma membrane is made up of phospholipid bi-layer that has both hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails, which facilitate movement of substances through it. The hydrophilic head is attracted to water molecules while two hydrophobic tails are attracted to hydrocarbon products (Martini, Timmons and Tallitsch 2012). The plasma membrane contains double layer because in water solvents, the hydrophilic head will be attracted to water while the hydrophobic tails will not be attracted to water. The phospholipid bi-layer is very important to the plasma membrane because it gives stability and flexibility (Marieb and Hoehn 2013). Additionally, the phospholipid bi-layer remains in fluid state, which permits the cell to easily alter its shape.

n2.1 Organelles

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nFigure A represents the mitochondria while figure B represents the Golgi bodies/apparatus. Mitochondrion is a body organelle, which act as the sources of energy supply for the body. The mitochondria release energy in form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (Patton and Thibodeau 2010). Through cellular respiration, the mitochondria provide energy via oxidation of glucose. The mitochondria have other functions such as cell death, cellular differentiation and signalling. The organelle also contains mitochondrial DNA, which play an important role in inheritance. On the other hand, the Golgi apparatus are used for protein packaging (Wingerd 2014). In these cases, they involve the membrane-bound vesicles where protein is packaged. Golgi apparatus also participate in formation of lysosome and transport of lipid.

nMitochondria and Golgi apparatus are interrelated. In this case, since Golgi apparatus are involved in formation of lysosomes, they need energy in form of ATP. The mitochondria are the cell organelles, which produces energy for Golgi bodies and other cell processes (Roberts 2010). Mitochondria require protein packaged by Golgi bodies in mitochondria DNA (Martini, Timmons and Tallitsch 2012).

n2.1 Protein synthesis

nProteins are composed of long sequence of amino acids. Protein is very importance in different functions in the cell such as DNA replication. The formation of protein from amino acids requires encoded information in genes (Patton and Thibodeau 2010). Every protein has its own sequence of amino acid, which is related to the sequence of nucleotide of the gene responsible for encoding the protein. In a gene, a set of three-nucleotide form a single amino acid. For instance, Adenine-uracil-guanine (AUG) is responsible for the formation of methionine (amino acid) (Martini, Timmons and Tallitsch 2012). The first step in protein synthesis involves transcription of encoded genes by messenger RNA (McDowell 2011). In this case, the mRNA is used as a template in the ribosome for the synthesis of protein. Translation is the process of protein synthesis from mRNA (Roberts 2010). Some of the products produced from protein include meat.

n2.1 Autolysis through lysosomes

nSelf-digestion process in the cell is referred to as autolysis. Lysosomes are involved in this process where they produce enzymes. The process is very common in dying cells and injured tissues. The lysosomes produce and release digestive enzymes into the cytoplasm (Martini, Timmons and Tallitsch 2012). When the active process in a cell cess, the digestive enzymes are released when there is no active process of the organelle.

n2.1 Chromosomes and Genes

nChromosomes are heredity units in the cell. They are found inside the nucleus of the cell. Genes are structures in the chromosomes that contain hereditary material in form of DNA. For instance, a child inherits DNA from both the father and mother who contribute half of their DNA (Hurst 2011). Self-fertilization helps to accomplish this process after union of the egg and the sperm. In this case, the egg and the sperm contribute half on the genetic information in the child (Wingerd 2014). Therefore, a child is genetically diverse relative to either parent. Genetic information in the egg and sperm enable maintenance of genetic identity among families. Sexual fertilization ensures that a child is different genetically from his/her siblings unless they are twins. A sperm or egg contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, which is exactly half of that in both parents (Patton and Thibodeau 2010). Cell division helps in production of a copy of chromosomes from parent genetic information.

n2.2 Human Tissues

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nFigures A, B and C represent skeletal muscle tissue, epithelial tissue and nervous tissue respectively. Skeletal muscle cells are made up of fibrous and long cells. The cells are adapted for contraction in the muscle, which facilitate movement of body parts (Martini, Timmons and Tallitsch 2012). They are bundled and their arrangement is in parallel lines, which increases their strength.

nEpithelial cells make up the epithelial tissue. Their arrangements are inform of columnar, cuboidal and flat shape (Wingerd 2014). They form a fixed or single sheet because cells are tightly fixed together. They play an important role in protection of body such as the skin.

nNervous tissues are found in the nervous system. Specialized cells (neurons) make up the nervous tissue. They are responsible for transmission of signals from nerve endings to and from the brain and spinal cord (Roberts 2010). Therefore, they facilitate human being to use their senses.

n3.1 Metabolism

nLiving organisms require the chemical reactions inside the cell for various reasons. The enzymes play a critical role in these chemical reactions because they act as catalysts. Therefore, these reactions help human being to grow through the process of cell differentiation (Patton and Thibodeau 2010). Energy that is needed in the body is produced through the process of metabolism. There are two types of metabolic processes, i.e. anabolic and catabolic processes. Catabolic process encompasses the breakdown of complex food molecules into smaller units (Roberts 2010). Consequently, these smaller units are used as building blocks for more human molecules. On the other hand, anabolic pathways encompass the application of energy in the production of new chemical substances that form part of the cell. Metabolic processes take place in the mitochondria and cell cytosol (Marieb and Hoehn 2013).

n4.1 Lock and Key mechanism in enzymatic action

nEnzymes action is very important in the life of human beings. In key and lock mechanism, the enzyme act as locks, while the substrate acts as keys. In this regard, the body contain a wide range of enzymes (Martini, Timmons and Tallitsch 2012). Therefore, for normal life processes to continue, the right enzyme must effectively identify and unite with its definite substrate. In addition, every enzyme initiates chemical reactions to specific substrate that takes place within a given period. Substrate works as keys because every enzyme will react to one or two substrates (Roberts 2010). In order to produce the desired products, the substrate structure should match the shape and size to the enzymes’ receptor sites. After the enzyme select its suitable substrate, the receptor sites join the substrate, which lead to development of complete union that facilitate the chemical reaction (Chiras 2013).

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n5.1 Movement of substance through active and passive transport in the cell

nActive and passive transport are the main process through which materials move in and out of human cell. Active transport is a process in which substances move across the cell membrane but against the concentration gradient. On the contrary, passive transport involves the movement of substances and other molecules across the membranes (Patton and Thibodeau 2010).

n5.1 A Sailor

nSeawater has huge amounts of salts. When the sailor drank the seawater, his body took both water and salts. However, the level of salt content is much higher in seawater as compared to that in human cells. In addition, human body cannot process this amount of salt (Patton and Thibodeau 2010). The sailor lost his life because too much salts could not maintain the chemical reaction and balance. Addition, higher levels of sodium in the body can contribute to death.

n6.1 Sprinter and Marathon runner

nA sprinter gets tired quickly as compared to a marathon runner because he/she breathes out throughout the sprinting exercises. In this case, sprinting is anaerobic process because it takes place with limited supply of oxygen. The sprinting exercise, which the sprinter engages, is done at higher intensity (Roberts 2010). Nonetheless, a marathoner runs for 26 miles, which a low intensity exercises. Therefore, a marathoner is involved in an aerobic exercise with large supply of oxygen. In this case, the marathoner will take much more time to get tired as compared to a sprinter.

nConclusion

nThe human body has a wide range of functions, processes and systems. Some of the features of human body include movement, reproduction, nutrition, sensitivity and response, growth excretion and respiration. Some of the most important organelle in human body includes nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes and Golgi bodies.

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nReferences

nChiras, D., 2013. Human body systems. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

nHurst, J., 2011. Anatomy and physiology in a flash!. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

nMarieb, E. and Hoehn, K., 2013. Human anatomy & physiology. Boston: Pearson.

nMartini, F., Timmons, M. and Tallitsch, R., 2012. Human anatomy. Boston: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.

nMcDowell, J., 2011. Encyclopedia of human body systems. Santa Barbara: Greenwood.

nPatton, K. and Thibodeau, G., 2010. Anatomy & physiology. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier.

nRoberts, A., 2010. The complete human body. New York, N.Y.: DK Pub.

nWingerd, B., 2014. The human body. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.