Aboriginal Infants and Young Children, the Challenges Ahead

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nIntroduction

nAboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders are faced with a wide range of health challenges. The infants and young children from these communities have poor quality of life that contributes to poor health status in their adulthood. In addition, childhood challenges play a role in high cases of cardiovascular diseases, Type 2 diabetes, substance abuse, suicide, depression and premature death (Thackrah and Winch 2011). Furthermore, Australia indigenous infants and children are vulnerable to health issues such as cognitive impairment, poor immune and endocrine system, and poor operation of nervous system (Burrow and Ride 2016). Research indicates that indigenous population in Australia made up approximately 2.5 per cent (about 516 000) of the entire population in 2006. Additionally, the population was composed of young generation with a median age group of 20 years (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2015). The paper will review various literatures on health issues of Aboriginal infants and young children and the challenges they are likely to experience in the future.

nFactors that increases the Health risk in Young Children

nA study by Eckermann, Dowd, Chong, Nixon and Gray (2010) indicates that when children are exposed to stress such as environmental or social stressors, they have a higher chance to suffer throughout their lives. Therefore, the study pointed out that infants who are exposed to challenges such as community and family violence, insufficient stimulation, neglect and chronic abuse are more likely to develop growth and learning complications in their adulthood (Eckermann, Dowd, Chong, Nixon and Gray 2010). Similarly, young children and infants who are subjected to poverty and weak responsiveness especially from their main caregivers have a higher risk of abnormal stress response, nervousness disorders and mental challenges later in their lives (Thackrah and Winch 2011). Therefore, the researcher pointed out that most of Aboriginal young children and infants suffer from these factors, which contribute to adverse health conditions at their late stages in life.

nAnother research by Burrow and Ride (2016) investigated the effects of financial challenges, stress and anxiety during pregnancy to childhood development. The researcher noted that these factors increase the risk of substance abuse, poor nutrition and weakened antenatal care. In this regard, the factors strain the mother during pregnancy but they ultimately increase the susceptibility of a child in his/her development leading to impaired inattention, behavior and emotions (Burrow and Ride 2016). The findings of this research are consistent with Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2015) study which revealed out that maternal stressors especially during pregnancy, for instance poor nutrition, affects the normal development of a foetus and child (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2015).

nThackrah and Winch (2011) argued that mental, health, cognitive and psychosocial experiences have the ability to be transferred from parents to children. For instance, parents who have been exposed to these challenges in their early life have the capacity to transfer the effect to their children (Thackrah and Winch 2011). On the other hand, parent who had enriching, supportive and positive experiences in their early childhood, have a higher chance of transferring these supportive practices to their own children because of epigenetic (Cresp et al. 2016).

nHealth Inequalities among Australian Indigenous Young Children and Infants

nA survey conducted in 2014 revealed out that births involving Australia indigenous population were recorded at 6 per cent. Generally, Australia indigenous women recorded many births as compared to other populations in the country. Most notably, they also gave birth at younger age than other Australian women gave birth. On average, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander had 2.2 births relative to other non-indigenous women who had 1.8 births (Burrow and Ride 2016). In addition, approximately, 75 per cent of indigenous mothers gave birth to their children when they were below 30 years especially during their teenage as compared to non-indigenous women. Most of the indigenous births are characterized by low birth weight. Most notably, Gwynn, et al. (2010) argued that low birth weight contribute to health challenges in the development stages of a child (Gwynn, et al. 2010).

nVarious studies point out that there is a major gap in the health conditions of Australia indigenous infants and young children as compared to non-indigenous population in Australia. In early stages of life, Australian aboriginal infants and young children are two times more vulnerable to death before their fifth year as compared to other children (Thackrah and Winch 2011). For instance, a study conducted by Eckermann, Dowd, Chong, Nixon and Gray (2010) noted that deaths in Australia Indigenous children less than one year had the highest rate of year of life lost (YLL) at 11 per cent for female and 12 per cent of males. The researcher pointed out that these statistics show that there is a huge challenge of health inequalities in indigenous people taking place in infancy (Eckermann, Dowd, Chong, Nixon and Gray 2010). The study also explored some of the leading causes of deaths among the Australia Indigenous children and highlighted that adversity and stress causes poor quality of childcare.

nIndigenous children who are more than one year of age are also at risk of death as compared to the general Australian population. In addition, this is reflected in late stages of life of the Aboriginal group. For instance, indigenous males between 45 and 49 years had the highest rate of years of life lost (YLL) at 5 187 as compared to the general Australian population. Similarly, the aboriginal females between 50 and 54 years had the highest rate of years of life lost at 3 736. Furthermore, the rate of YLL was highest among the aboriginal infants. In particular, the rate of YLL among Aboriginal male infants was 780 per 1000 males while YLL for Aboriginal female infants was 535 per 1000 (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2015). Therefore, the research indicated that these numbers were consistent with increasing number of deaths at infancy stage among the aboriginals. Likewise, the number of deaths among the aboriginal males increases constantly to 84 years where it was recorded at rate of 988 deaths per 1000 people. In addition, the research highlighted that the rate of deaths among the aboriginals increases from infancy stage to adulthood, which reflect various health-underlying factors among the Australian indigenous people (Cresp et al. 2016).

nA study by Jongen, McCalman, Bainbridge and Tsey (2014) suggested that Torres Strait Islanders and Aboriginal children had a higher susceptibility to diseases than other Australian children did. Therefore, they were 1.4 times at risk of hospitalization from 2008 to 2010 relative to other children in similar age group. Furthermore, in terms of risk of nutritional anaemia, indigenous children were 30 times more vulnerable as compared to other children (Jongen, McCalman, Bainbridge and Tsey 2014). Similarly, with regard to susceptibility to obesity and overweight, Torres Strait Islanders and Aboriginal children from two to four years are two times more likely to suffer from these diseases relative to other children at the same age group (Thackrah and Winch 2011).

nCardiovascular diseases (CVDs) cause significant amount of the early childhood diseases and deaths among Australian indigenous population. For instance, CVDs are common contributors of infant mortality rates. A survey by Australian Bureau of Statistics noted that 13 per cent, of indigenous people were suffering from some kind of CVD (Burrow and Ride 2016). Australian indigenous infants and young children were 1.6 times more at risk to hospitalization due to CVDs complications. In 2013, the CVDs were responsible of approximately 25 per cent of the total death of infants and young children in the country (Eckermann, Dowd, Chong, Nixon and Gray 2010). Therefore, the survey suggested that these infants and young children were more at risk to die from CVDs as compared to non-indigenous children.

nAdditionally, the incidences of certain cancers were higher among the children of aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders than other populations. For instance, children were 1.2 times more vulnerable to death from lung cancer as compared to other children at the same age group (Gwynn, et al. 2010). Some researchers such as Thackrah and Winch (2011) argued that this is caused by behavioural factors among the indigenous community. The scholar highlighted that about 45 per cent of indigenous mothers were regular smokers during their pregnancy, which increased the risk of cancers. The researcher suggested that epigenetic factors could be contributing to higher rate of CVDs among indigenous children (Thackrah and Winch 2011).

nObesity and overweight during childhood is very common among the Australia Indigenous than other populations. Most of these infants and young children gain more weight in their childhood. Scholar such as Thackrah and Winch (2011) argued that hardship suffered in early stages of life and during pregnancy establishes epigenetic and physiological factors, which play a role in resistance of insulin in childhood. Another researcher noted that Australian indigenous children live in remote places where nutritious food is inadequate (Thackrah and Winch 2011). Consequently, they tend to consume foods with low nutrient, and high energy. Notably, Burrow and Ride (2016) revealed out that indigenous people have reduced level of physical activity. Normally, the body require at least 30 minutes of intense physical activity. Therefore, these factors contribute to higher rate of obesity and overweight among aboriginal and Torres Strait islanders’ young children (Burrow and Ride 2016).

nAccording to Cresp et al. (2016), cases of anaemia during early stages of human development are common among the Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders. The research argued that infants suffering from anaemia in their childhood period are likely to experience cognitive and physical impairment in their growth (Cresp et al. 2016). Consequently, the risk of children to infection and chronic disability are higher. In this regard, Australian indigenous children are 2.5 times more likely to experience stunted growth which caused by anaemia during childhood. In addition, this condition is disrupting the neurological growth of children (Eckermann, Dowd, Chong, Nixon and Gray 2010).

nType 2 diabetes is very common among Australian indigenous children as compared to those from non-indigenous population. Diabetes causes serious complications such as blindness, eye illness and limb amputations. A research by Jongen, McCalman, Bainbridge and Tsey (2014) pointed out that these Australia Indigenous children tend to develop Type 2 diabetes earlier than other children do. The children also die early than non-indigenous children. In 2013, indigenous young children were eight times more vulnerable to type 2 diabetes than in non-indigenous people (Jongen, McCalman, Bainbridge and Tsey 2014). The researcher proposed that obesity and overweight among these children contributes to high cases of Type 2 diabetes (Gwynn, et al. 2010). Therefore, the mortality rate of Australia Indigenous young children caused by diabetes is likely to be higher than the general population.

nKidney problems are more common health problems among the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people than other non-indigenous group. Various empirical data show that End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) affects indigenous people in Australia at their early childhood as compared to the general population in the country (Burrow and Ride 2016). This condition takes place when kidneys completely stop functioning. Between 2010 and 2014, there were 45 cases of ESRD among indigenous children below 15 years. The numbers of these cases were significantly higher than in non-indigenous people (Thackrah and Winch 2011). Moreover, the researcher noted that during the same period, more than 60 per cent of indigenous population suffering from ESRD were below 55 years. Younger population of Indigenous people living in Northern Territory were 20 times at risk of ESRD (Cresp et al. 2016).

nAustralia indigenous people tend to be prone to respiratory health conditions than non-indigenous people. Some of the respiratory diseases that affect the indigenous young children include pneumonia, asthma, viral infections and common cold. Scholars such as Marmot (2011) noted that smoking is a common practice among the indigenous people, which tend to affect infants and young children after inhaling the toxins. In addition, due to poor living, housing and environmental conditions in their homes, children are more prone to these diseases (Marmot 2011). In this regard, indigenous infants and young children are three times at risk of hospitalization due to respiratory conditions (Thackrah and Winch 2011). Infections of these diseases are also evident among the young adults from this indigenous population.

nConclusion

nA wide range of literature suggests that the health outcomes of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders infants and young children are weaker as compared to their counterparts in country. The main causes of poor health status of indigenous young children are complex because they include socio-economic, behavioural, environmental and genetic factors (Jongen, McCalman, Bainbridge and Tsey 2014). Therefore, many scholars propose inter-sectorial efforts to aiming to develop programs that focus on Australian indigenous people.

nReferences

nAustralian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2015. Australian Burden of Disease Study: fatal burden of disease in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people 2010. Australian Burden of Disease Study series no. 2. Cat. no. BOD 2. Canberra: AIHW

nBurrow, S. and Ride, K., 2016. Review of diabetes among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.

nCresp, R., Clarke, K., McAuley, K.E., McAullay, D., Moylan, C.A., Peter, S., Chaney, G.M., Cook, A. and Edmond, K.M., 2016. Effectiveness of the Koorliny Moort out-of-hospital health care program for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in Western Australia. Med J Aust, 204(5), p.197.

nEckermann, A.K., Dowd, T., Chong, E., Nixon, L. and Gray, R., 2010. Binan Goonj: bridging cultures in Aboriginal health. Elsevier Australia.

nGwynn, J.D., Hardy, L.L., Wiggers, J.H., Smith, W.T., D’Este, C.A., Turner, N., Cochrane, J., Barker, D.J. and Attia, J.R., 2010. The validation of a self‐report measure and physical activity of Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non‐Indigenous rural children. Australian and New Zealand journal of public health, 34(s1), pp.S57-S65.

nJongen, C., McCalman, J., Bainbridge, R. and Tsey, K., 2014. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander maternal and child health and wellbeing: a systematic search of programs and services in Australian primary health care settings. BMC pregnancy and childbirth, 14(1), p.1.

nMarmot, M., 2011. Social determinants and the health of Indigenous Australians. Med J Aust, 194(10), pp.512-513.

nThackrah, R. and Winch, J., 2011. Indigenous Australian health and cultures: An introduction for health professionals. Pearson Australia.