Childhood Resilience to AdversityName

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nExecutive summary

nChildhood adversity is a major problem in the contemporary society. Many children are vulnerable to a wide range of social and ecological hardships, which causes widespread negative impacts on their wellbeing and health. Some of these include household poverty, financial hardships, parental chronic diseases, parental divorce and social exclusion. Although some children are able to develop resilience towards these stressful conditions, many suffer from suicide, depression, cancer, obesity, and hypertension in their adulthood. For instance, in the US, more than 35 million children are exposed to more than two of these harmful events. Therefore, there is a need to initiate programs that can assist families to nurture their children in an appropriate way. Family support programs are beneficial to families experiencing financial challenges. Through these programs, the parents or primary caregivers should be empowered economically by enrolling them in programs that can offer a stable source of income. In doing so, it would facilitate better parent-child attachment or interactions.

nStatement of Issue

nThis policy belief analyses the current issues of adversities in the early childhood, which affect both mental and physical development at later stages in life. The main purpose of the brief is to deliver recommendations on how to help families reduce childhood adversities.

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nWhy is this Issue Important?

nThe experiences of people in their childhood are important because they shape their long-term emotional and behavioural outcomes. Moreover, exposure of adversity in childhood leads to a broad range of developmental outcomes in their lives. For instance, childhood adversities are related to psychiatric problems and brain development whose impacts persist into adulthood (Shonkoff, et al, 2012). In this regard, when a child endures parental instability such as substance abuse, family violence, environmental deprivation and maltreatment, they are prone to harmful impacts on their mental well-being. These kinds of adversities affect children because they have the ability to cause production of toxic stress, which can lead to major changes in various brain regions (Kiecolt-Glaser, et al, 2011). Consequently, regions of help in executive roles, memory and learning are negatively affected. However, children have the ability to resist and adapt to various adverse exposures. The capacity to overcome childhood trauma is the product of resilience (Tunnard, et al, 2014).

nUrgency of the Problem

nChildhood adversity causes significant negative problems in the lives of human being. The effects may onset during early adulthood. Various types of adversities in childhood include exposure to domestic violence, parental separation and divorce, parents death, and neglect or abuse. Similarly, a child living with a person having challenges in substance abuse, social exclusion, economic hardships and mental illness is likely to experience adversities. Research by Garner, et al, (2012) has noted that there is a high prevalence of children experiencing adversities in their early stages of life. For instance, the study noted that in the US, roughly 35 million children have suffered from one or more adversities. Furthermore, one in every three youths in the country between the age of 12 and 17 years have been exposed to more than two forms of adversities in their childhood (Garner, et al, 2012). Another study conducted by Ehlert, (2013) highlighted that approximately 12 per cent of children across the globe have experienced more than three forms of childhood adversities, which increases levels of stress that can negatively affect their development and well-being. However, some forms of adversities were more prevalent than others. For instance, exposure to parental separation or diverse, financial challenges, violent neighbourhood, and substance abuse issues were more common. The findings of the study indicated that 26 per cent of children were exposed to consistent economic problems, while 20 per cent had suffered from separations or divorce of their parents. In addition, 9 per cent and 8 per cent of children had experienced cases of drug abuse and violent neighbourhood respectively (Ehlert, 2013).

nAdversities in childhood are sources of widespread negative developmental outcomes in human life. Various studies have confirmed that many people are affected by this problem leading to undesirable outcomes. A study by Roberts, (2011), found out that childhood adversities play a huge part in poor development of the brain, and long-term development. Since these adversities are capable of stimulating, toxic stress, they disrupt the brain circuitry in the sensitive growth period of the child. Consequently, such disturbances lead to physiologic problems and anatomic variations in the brain that are the foundations of disorders later in life, especially in behaviour and teach (Roberts, 2011). It can also cause chronic mental and physical illnesses, which are associated to stress. Moreover, childhood adversities are also associated with various negative development challenges in socio-emotional, cognitive, and linguistic skills. According to Schaffer, (2007), childhood adversities have a huge effect on health problems such as diabetes, heart disease, depression and alcoholism. Therefore, adults who were exposed to these kinds of experiences are likely to suffer from these diseases (Schaffer, 2007).

nHow adversity causes Health Outcome

nVarious models have attempted to explain have different factors influence the response of children to adversity. One of such models is the Eco-Bio-Development (EBD) Model, which explains the strong relationship between adversities in childhood and health impacts (Brumberg & Shah, 2015). The EBD model suggests that early environmental and social exposures (the ecology) as well as genetic susceptibilities (the biology) have a significant effect of the growth of future adaptive learning capabilities, behaviors, lifelong mental and physical well-being, and financial efficiency. In addition, the EBD model demonstrates a robust relationship between different kinds of adversities in childhood, such as drug abuse, parental mental problems, neglect and abuse on a broad range of health outcomes in adulthood, including suicide, depression, cancer, diabetes, hypertension and obesity as well as prosperity such as challenges at work and economic woes (Brumberg & Shah, 2015). Furthermore, the EBD model reveals that the ecological factors such as emotional, social and physical environmental normally changes the manner in which genetic blueprint in children is read. Therefore, they are able to alter the gene expression without changing the sequence of DNA (Kay & Benbow, 2011). In this regard, they stimulate the stress response in children, which produces stress hormone such as adrenaline and cortisol. Therefore, these mechanisms change the manner in which DNA blueprint is used in the life of a person causing many negative development challenges (Brumberg & Shah, 2015). EBD model demonstrates that childhood experiences play a critical part in influencing the way in which the brain leads itself in the process of development. In this respect, the brain acts as a foundational architecture (Kay & Benbow, 2011). Similarly, experiences also determine the plasticity of the brain in reaction to environmental changes. Therefore, experiences during childhood act as a basis for lifelong wellness, healthy behaviours and learning.

nEBD Model, Source (Brumberg & Shah, 2015)

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nResilience to Adversity

nStudies have revealed that some children are resilient to adversity. Resilience helps individuals to successfully deal with challenges in their lives. Although it is developed over a given time, resilience to adversity starts in the formative period. Research by Goldstein, S., & Brooks, (Eds.) (2012) highlighted various factors that help to establish resilience to adversity during childhood, which include reliable and safe relationship, nutritious food, skilled caregivers and safe communities (Brooks, (Eds.) (2012). Similarly, the researcher noted suggested that since resilience in concerned with genetic, biological and environmental interactions, some kids are inherently and naturally capable to adapt to different difficulties as compared to their counterparts (Miller & Cole, 2012).

nResilience to hardships in childhood arises from positive relationships between children and immediate adults. A study by Herrman, et al, (2011) noted that immediate adults offer the protection and response, which can moderate distractions to healthy child development. In addition, this relationship is able to assist children to establish abilities and qualities that they require to succeed. For instance, they build qualities to adapt to unexpected and new circumstance, to solve problems and capacity to focus (Herrman, et al, 2011). Such qualities will facilitate positive development outcomes to take place in the future.

nImplications of the Research

nA wide range of factors, which include ecological and social experiences, causes adversities in childhood. In this respect, children who experience traumatic events, particularly from their primary caregivers and parents are able to respond by producing toxic stress, which can affect negatively on their wellbeing and health (Olesen, Macdonald, Raphael & Butterworth, 2010). Consequently, many children suffer from social and behavioural hardship, which are detrimental to their future outcomes (Angst, et al, 2011). On the other hand, some children are able to develop resilience to these stressful conditions. Resilience is important in the lives of children since it plays a protective part in the course of their lives. Thus, it helps children to build qualities that enable them to adjust to unexpected and new conditions in live (Scott, et al, 2011). Moreover, they are able to initiate robust mental and physical growth, which reduce cases of suicide, depression, cancer, diabetes and obesity.

nPolicy Recommendations

nFamily Support Programs seek to address childhood diversity in order to reduce its negative impacts. Research Oldehinkel, et al, (2014) indicated that most of the children live in disadvantaged families, which exposes them to economic and social problems. Issues such as financial hardships, household poverty and chronic disease play a significant part in childhood adversities. Therefore, family support programs offer adequate financial and physical assistances to underprivileged families (Fergusson & Horwood, 2003). Subsequently, they help in reducing negative development outcomes on a child.

nStudies such as Varese, (2012) noted that family support programs offer effective ways to cultivate the learning and development of children because families are more economically stable. Furthermore, these programs offer a conducive environment where parents and primary caregivers can enhance engagement and proper interactions with children. More importantly, they provide social networks, which facilitates culturally and responsive parenting (Varese, 2012). Since parents and the primary caregivers are the main drivers of children development, it is important to ensure that they are supported to enhance resilience growth to adversities.

nTherefore, it is recommended that during the implementation process of family support programs, it is important to introduce home visiting systems where expectant families who are vulnerable of negative child results. In addition, such families should also be enrolled in systems that empower them financially (Engle, et al, 2011). Similarly, there should be policies that enhance child-parent engagement programs which are culturally and linguistically acceptable and that reinforce nurturing and development of toddlers and infants (Walsh, 2015). However, these programs have been criticized since they have a challenge of sustainability. Reports have indicated that most family support programs are underfunded hence it has become very difficult to provide some of the services previously intended (Engle, et al, 2011). On the other hand, there is limited monitoring of the families benefiting from these programs which affect quality of care provided.

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nReferences

nAngst, J., Gamma, A., Rössler, W., Ajdacic, V., & Klein, D. N. (2011). Childhood adversity and chronicity of mood disorders. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience, 261(1), 21-27.

nBrumberg, H. L., & Shah, S. I. (2015). Born early and born poor: An eco-bio-developmental model for poverty and preterm birth. Journal of neonatal-perinatal medicine, 8(3), 179-187.

nEhlert, U. (2013). Enduring psychobiological effects of childhood adversity. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38(9), 1850-1857.

nEngle, P. L., Fernald, L. C., Alderman, H., Behrman, J., O’Gara, C., Yousafzai, A., … & Iltus, S. (2011). Strategies for reducing inequalities and improving developmental outcomes for young children in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 378(9799), 1339-1353.

nFergusson, D. M. & Horwood, J. (2003). Resilience to Childhood Adversity: Results of a 21-year study. In S. S. Luthar (2003) Resilience and vulnerability (pp. 132-133 & 143).

nGarner, A. S., Shonkoff, J. P., Siegel, B. S., Dobbins, M. I., Earls, M. F., McGuinn, L., … & Wood, D. L. (2012). Early childhood adversity, toxic stress, and the role of the pediatrician: translating developmental science into lifelong health. Pediatrics, 129(1), e224-e231.

nGoldstein, S., & Brooks, R. B. (Eds.). (2012). Handbook of resilience in children. Springer Science & Business Media.

nHerrman, H., Stewart, D. E., Diaz-Granados, N., Berger, E. L., Jackson, B., & Yuen, T. (2011). What is resilience?. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 56(5), 258-265.

nKay, M., & Benbow, M. D. (2011). Science of Pediatrics. Sponsorship/Accreditation Information, 13.

nKiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Gouin, J. P., Weng, N. P., Malarkey, W. B., Beversdorf, D. Q., & Glaser, R. (2011). Childhood adversity heightens the impact of later-life caregiving stress on telomere length and inflammation. Psychosomatic medicine, 73(1), 16.

nMiller, G. E., & Cole, S. W. (2012). Clustering of depression and inflammation in adolescents previously exposed to childhood adversity. Biological psychiatry, 72(1), 34-40.

nOldehinkel, A. J., Ormel, J., Verhulst, F. C., & Nederhof, E. (2014). Childhood adversities and adolescent depression: A matter of both risk and resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 26(4pt1), 1067-1075.

nOlesen, S. C., Macdonald, E., Raphael, B., & Butterworth, P. (2010). Childrens exposure to parental and familial adversities: Finding from a population of Australians. Family Matters, 84.

nRoberts, A. L., McLaughlin, K. A., Conron, K. J., & Koenen, K. C. (2011). Adulthood stressors, history of childhood adversity, and risk of perpetration of intimate partner violence. American journal of preventive medicine, 40(2), 128-138.

nSchaffer, Dr. Kipp, K. (2007). Emotional development, temperament, and attachment. In Developmental psychology: childhood & adolescence, 7th ed., Wadsworth/Thomson Learning: Belmont CZ, (pp. 421-464). Scott, K. M., Von Korff, M., Angermeyer, M. C., Benjet, C., Bruffaerts, R., De Girolamo, G., … & Tachimori, H. (2011). Association of childhood adversities and early-onset mental disorders with adult-onset chronic physical conditions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(8), 838-844.

nShonkoff, J. P., Garner, A. S., Siegel, B. S., Dobbins, M. I., Earls, M. F., McGuinn, L., … & Wood, D. L. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics, 129(1), e232-e246.

nTunnard, C., Rane, L. J., Wooderson, S. C., Markopoulou, K., Poon, L., Fekadu, A., … & Cleare, A. J. (2014). The impact of childhood adversity on suicidality and clinical course in treatment-resistant depression. Journal of affective disorders, 152, 122-130.

nVarese, F., Smeets, F., Drukker, M., Lieverse, R., Lataster, T., Viechtbauer, W., … & Bentall, R. P. (2012). Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: a meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective-and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophrenia bulletin, 38(4), 661-671.

nWalsh, F. (2015). Strengthening family resilience. Guilford Publications.