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nChinese History

nIntroduction

nFrom the thirteenth to the twentieth century, China recorded vast multicultural and multi-ethnic transformation due to variety of domestic and foreign factors. The Confucianism shaped much of the Chinese culture (Layma et al., 13). Under Confucius teachings, the authorities introduced harsh laws and punitive punishments meant to prevent people from law breaking. However, due to change of power and globalization of trade, China adopted more culture from the rest of the world. It became a home of foreign investors (Schulz-Forberg, 7). The paper will discuss and analyze domestic and foreign factors that transformed the country into a multicultural and multi-ethnic Eurasian nation.

nFollowing the fall of Song dynasty, the location of China as Eurasian country was reinforced. For long period, the Chinese lacked proper control of their association with their neighbors. Due to the rise of Genghis Khan to power, he decided to capture Beijing while his successor also captured southern cities such as Hangzhou. The grandson of Genghis established the Yuan dynasty that ruled all over China (Layma et al., 13). During the Yuan dynasty, the whole of Chinese population was divided into foreigner, Mongol and Han. However, the senior administrative positions were allocated for Mongols. From 1315, the examination policy was reintroduced in the dynasty (Schulz-Forberg, 11). Consequently, it produced unintended effects because it boosted the responsibilities of local landed elites. In this regard, elite Chinese could not advance in the administration they spent much of their time in management of their estates. During the Yuan dynasty, the utilization of paper money became widespread (Schulz-Forberg, 17). Nonetheless, because of overprinting of paper money, it led to economic challenges such as inflation.

nSince the Mongols were less powerful in their governance, the empire was faced with challenges such as rebellion. In the 13th century, Zhu Yuanzhang formed Ming dynasty. Most notably, the kingdom reintroduced ethnic Chinese laws. It is during the two great dynasties i.e. Ming and Qing that the cultural and population expanded. The effects of western imperialisation and industrialization had significant impact on China (Schulz-Forberg, 15).

nZhu Yuanzhang developed Nanjing as his capital in the 15th century. However, when Emperor Yongle rose to power he tried to reconstruct Beijing. During the Ming dynasty, China experienced great social change and commercial growth. In addition, the administration tried to enforce a traditional social system where people adhered to hereditary occupations (Schulz-Forberg, 14). Furthermore, women continued to experience harsher social roles but their literacy levels increased. For instance, widows were discouraged from remarrying. On the other hand, the use of woodblock technology increased in the dynasty (Layma et al., 14).

nDuring Emperor Yongle rule, the global maritime exploration in China expanded as he launched maritime expeditions. Maritime explorations had many impacts in China because foreign countries established their embassies in the dynasty. Again, ships from the rest of the world such as from Europe arrived in China (Schulz-Forberg, 18). Consequently, trade between China and Europe developed. China was also connected to the New World where it benefited from new crops such as maize and potatoes. The introduction of new crops played an essential role in changing the Chinese diet (Layma et al., 10). Most notably, the new crops stimulated the development of economy. Most of the merchants also developed private gardens.

nIn addition, missionaries also arrived in China. For instance, Mateo Ricci led a group of missionaries that played a role in spreading Christianity. However, the spread of Christianity faced many challenges in the Confucian society (Schulz-Forberg, 36).

nThe Ming dynasty suffered invasion from Manchu who established the Qing dynasty. The dynasty introduced nomadic way of life in China that suited agricultural civilization. In addition, due to constant threats from inner Asia, the dynasty incorporated Mongols in the administration. Although the Ming dynasty enforced traditional Chinese culture, it imposed harsh rules of separation of societies. It also attempted to safeguard a culture that protected their nomadic past (Layma et al., 23).

nDuring the Ming dynasty, the Chinese culture and power spread to other parts of Asia such as central Asia. Ultimately, it led to expansion of countrys territory to areas such as Korea and Vietnam (Layma et al., 23). Due to social and economic factors in the fifteenth century, the military power expanded. After the Europeans discovered the New World in the 15th century, China became a global market for American foods such as sweet potatoes and chilies (Schulz-Forberg, 40). In this respect, since Chinese had plenty of foods, they became healthier which led to increase in population. For instance, in the 18th century, the population rose from 150 million to 300 million (Layma et al., 16).

nDue to effects of imperialisation, China did not realize industrialization as expected in the 18th century. Although the size of China expanded, its state did not develop. For instance, the government size during this period did not expand in order to solve existing challenges such as war (Layma et al., 28).

nDuring the 19th century, war became a constant threat to the Qing dynasty. Consequently, the level of control in the government was undermined by the civil war. Although the dynasty was not overthrown, constant war led to conflicts that characterized the country in that century (Layma et al., 30). For instance, the Taiping War was one of the civil war in China that influenced the Qing dynasty. It was fought for eight years. After the war ended in 1864, Qing administration decided to modernize their army, railway and education. In this respect, they introduced European education and technology in Chinese culture (Schulz-Forberg, 39).

nThe European powers influenced the Qing dynasty to introduce reforms in the military in order to build a self-strengthening country. The rules sought to acquire arms and military technology from the western nations. However, after China was defeated during Sino-Japanese War of 1894-5, it lost control over Korea. Furthermore, due to foreign powers at the beginning of twentieth century, it led to emergence of Republic of China (Layma et al., 32). The first elections were conducted during this period and parliament democracy was introduced.

nOther cities such as Shanghai developed due to modernization in early twentieth century. The people in the city adopted new fashions and were commercial minded. Women in these cities had more rights as compared to in rural areas. In addition, the cities had many foreign investors who introduced their culture among the locals. Most notably, most of the Chinese migrated from the rural areas in order to earn a living in the city (Schulz-Forberg, 24). On the other hand, the Chinese adopted American movies, British architecture and French Fashions. Prior to the World War I, Shanghai had recorded significant number of millionaires than the rest of China (Layma et al., 44).

nMoreover, many intellectuals in China especially students led demonstrations that urged the government to implement democracy. In addition, they were against Confucianism that they believed it was the cause of many crises in China. Most importantly, the intellectuals in China wanted the government to introduce New Culture (Schulz-Forberg, 45). The 20th century also witnessed the Cultural Revolution. During the revolution was linked with xenophobic and anti-intellectuals such as teachers and doctors who were condemned for being ‘experts instead of “red” (Layma et al., 54). The administration supported the Cultural Revolution. However, it was marred with violence and it was consequently stopped. After the end of Vietnam War, the government of China held talks with the US (Schulz-Forberg, 71). The country was reopened to the West. The Cultural Revolution started to fade out which allowed the Chinese and foreigners to meet.

nChina started to initiate reforms in the country in areas such as national defense, science and technology, industry and agriculture. The administrations in China encouraged entrepreneurship. The influence of western nations led to establishment of free markets and small local enterprises where farmers could sell their produce. By the end of the twentieth century, China has been more affected by modernity (Layma et al., 42). In addition, the Chinese economy recorded massive development. It also plays a crucial role in powerful global affairs. For instance, China is a permanent member of UN Security Council. It has also attempted to spread the Chinese culture across the world (Schulz-Forberg, 80). For instance, it has established Confucius institutes in some parts of the world such as in Africa and Latin America based on British education system.

nConclusion

nChina has experienced massive transformation since thirteenth to twentieth century. It has become a multi-ethnic and multicultural Eurasian country because of domestic and foreign factors. China played a critical role in the international trade for a long time. In addition, globalization has led to spread of European culture, technology and architecture in China. Confucianism shaped the Chinese culture. The ideology imposed harsh and strict punishments ad laws in order to prevent people from doing wrong. It did not recognize for women rights (Schulz-Forberg, 81). However, due to change of power, immigration globalization and need for reforms; China has become a multicultural country.

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nWork cited

nLayma, Yann et al. China. New York: H.N. Abrams, 2003. Print.

nSchulz-Forberg, Hagen. A Global Conceptual History Of Asia, 1860-1940. London: Pickering & Chatto Publishers, 2014. Print.