Contribution of Second Language Theory to practices in English language teaching

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nIntroduction

nTeaching English as a second language requires appropriate strategies and approaches as the learners are non-native speakers. Teachers should seek to offer necessary exposure to students to a wide range of issues. The main aim of teaching any language to non-native speakers is to ensure that students are able to understand various aspects of inputs in the real world (Smith and Candlin 2014). Ultimately, when they reach advanced level they acquire sustainable improvement. The theory of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) by Krashen suggests that there is no major difference between the manners in which a person attains his/her first language and consequent languages (Krashen 2013). Moreover, the SLA theory proposes that humans have an inherent capacity that lead in the process of learning language. Infant acquire their mother tongue merely by listening keenly to oral languages that is significant to them. In this regard, it claims that second languages are learnt in similar fashion.

nTheory of Second Language Acquisition

nThe theory of second language acquisition comprises five fundamental hypotheses, which include affective filter hypothesis, input hypothesis, natural order hypothesis, monitor hypothesis and acquisition learning hypothesis. The provisions of this theory are widely embraced as it provides important concepts in the teaching of English language (Krashen 2013).

nThe first hypothesis of Acquisition-Learning, which is the most vital of all the hypotheses in this theory. Based on Krashen argument, there are two autonomous structures of second language presentation, which include the learned system and the acquired system. The SLA theory noted that the acquired system is the outcome of an involuntary procedure that is comparable to the development infants endure in the process of first language acquisition (Ellis and Shintani 2013). It demands, significant relations in the intrinsic communication. In this regard, speakers focus not in the type of their expressions but in the act of communication. SLA theory also noted that when individuals acquire languages, they are not cognizant that something has happened since the information is deposited in their mind subconsciously (Krashen 2013). Studies point out that both adults and children can subconsciously attain language either written and oral language can gained.

nSecondly, learning process of a language involves conscious procedure. In this regard, when people learning they understand what they are pursuing. Moreover, this process involves formal instructions where learners are subject to rules in grammar, pronunciation, and comprehension (Ellis and Shintani 2013). The product of this process involves learners gaining the conscious information concerning a particular language. Learning is facilitated by correction of errors where students err and are rectified. Therefore, ones adjust his/her conscious form of the rule (Ferris 2011).

nThe Monitor hypothesis descries the association between learning and acquisition. Additionally, it describes the influence of learning on the acquisition process. The monitoring operation is the pragmatic effect of the learned grammar. SLA theory proposes that the system of acquisition is the initiator of exclamation, while the system of learning plays the part of the editor or monitor (Robinson, Mackey, Gass and Schmidt 2012). The monitor executes in correcting, editing and planning function when three precise situations are met. In this regard, the learner of second language has enough available time and concentrates on improvement of grammar or correctness (Smith and Candlin 2014).

nThe theory of second language acquisition advocates that there is personal variation among learners of language in terms of ‘monitor utilization. It differentiates between those students that apply the ‘monitor in all occasions (over-users) and those students who have failed to learn or who intend not to apply their conscious information (under-users) (Cook and Singleton 2014). Furthermore, there are students who appropriately apply their ‘monitor hence they are referred to as optimal users. In most cases, perfectionist and introverts are over-users while under-users comprise the extroverts (Nunan 2012). Learners without self-confidence are likely to suffer from ‘monitor over-use.

nThe Input Hypothesis in the theory of second language acquisition (SLA) attempts to describe the manner in which a student attains a second language. Therefore, this hypothesis only focuses on ‘acquisition as opposed to ‘learning (Ellis and Shintani 2013). Moreover, based on this hypothesis, students increases knowledge and advances when he/she attains the ‘input of the second language that is one level beyond his/her present step of language capability. For instance, in case the student is at a level ‘i, then attainment occurs when he/she is exposed to ‘comprehensible input that is in the stage of ‘i +1 (Krashen 2013).

nThe next element of SLA theory is the hypothesis of Natural Order, which proposes that the attainment of grammatical arrangements adheres to a ‘natural order, that is expectable. In some languages, given grammatical arrangement appear to be attained late while others early. In addition, natural order also seems to be autonomous of the age of the learner, exposure conditions and L1 circumstances (Robinson, Mackey, Gass and Schmidt 2012). The order of acquisition of language is not precise since not all learners advances in accurately the identical order. Nonetheless, the disparity among the learners is not extreme. Studies have revealed interesting matters concerning the natural order (Ferris 2011). First, there is no evidence that simple grammatical rules are attained early while complex ones are attained later. This means that some simple grammatical rules such as singular of third person are attained late. However, some that appear complicated are attained early. More importantly, the natural order is fixed hence cannot be altered (Krashen 2013). Hence, a teacher cannot change the order in which learners gain language by offering exercises, drills, explanations.

nThe final hypothesis is the Affective Filter Hypothesis, which symbolizes the idea that a several affective factors play a facilitative part in the attainment of second language. Some of these factors include anxiety, self-confidence, and motivation (Smith and Candlin 2014). The theory claim that students with lower anxiety level, a respectable self-image, self-confidence and exemplary motivation are more likely to succeed in attainment of second language (Nunan 2012). However, lack of motivation, devastating anxiety and low self-esteem can increase the affective filter and develop a mental block, which inhibits comprehensible input from being utilized for attainment. Meanwhile, in case the filter is up, it hinders the process of language attainment. On the contrary, positive affect is important although it is not enough for attainment to occur (Cook and Singleton 2014). The hypothesis also asserts that affective factors do not directly affect the process of language attainment but stop input from attaining ‘language attainment device.

nThe Application and Practice of SLA in English Language Teaching

nThe theory of second language acquisition (SLA) can be applied in describing the process, techniques and strategies used in teaching English language. When the non-native learner is at either the beginning level or advanced level of learning, different methods of teaching can be used based on SLA theory (Polio 2012). Significantly, teachers are trained to use a number of methods to ensure that students acquire English language. Therefore, they play a part in development of comprehensible input in different forms. They offer context through application of movement, and pictures (Hüttner, Mehlmauer-Larcher, Reichl and Schiftner eds. 2011). In the robust method of the Total Physical Response, English language is trained via commands. In addition, teachers also assist to facilitate comprehensible input by altering their speech. The changes they make, nevertheless, are not tightly enforced (Robinson, Mackey, Gass and Schmidt 2012). Reasonably teacher normally seem to speak a little more gradually and utilize less complicate language as they attempt to help learners acquire and understand grammar. Moreover, the SLA theory plays a significant part in the development and organization of English syllabus (Polio 2012). In this case, it calls for lesson plan as well as other activities that facilitate learning of English language.

nThe theory proposes some of these activities, which helps students in English learning process such as engaging in stories, discussion and games. However, these activities must be comprehensible and interesting. There is not obligation that the activity offer practice with a certain grammatical structure (Ellis and Shintani 2013). Furthermore, to facilitate acquisition of English as a second language, SLA theory encourages learners to speak since it helps to reduce the affective filter by inspiring the speaker to develop a sense of attachment to the community that speak in English (Nunan 2012).

nThe theory also proposes that the learners at beginners level should be given an opportunity to engage in activities while giving very little or no contributions. In this regard, they should not be compelled to construct complete sentences. In fact, they should be allowed to err even if they are not corrected (Robinson, Mackey, Gass and Schmidt 2012). The Second language acquisition theory anticipates that accuracy in grammar is an outcome of comprehensible input rather than correction or output. Additionally, a number of researches have pointed out that at beginners level, error correction at this stage of learning is not helpful. Similarly, the teacher should start by introducing simple rules when teaching grammar. In fact, grammar should be introduced to older learners especially those in high school as opposed to young children (Krashen 2013). In this regard, a teacher can test English language proficiency via storytelling and reading.

nThere are two main reasons why grammar should be introduced. First, it helps to gratify the interest some learners have concerning the language structure, as fundamental linguistics is valuable and interesting (Cook and Singleton 2014). Secondly, it assists to close the gaps that existed due to incomplete English language acquisition when the circumstances for the application of Monitor are satisfied. Based on the suggestions of the SLA theory, a non-native English learner cannot have 100 per cent acquisition although a person can have almost all of a language (Robinson, Mackey, Gass and Schmidt 2012). Therefore, older English learners using comprehensible input practice offers a conscious knowledge of grammatical rules, which many individuals despite comprehensive reading and listening may not attain. Furthermore, such rules must be applied only in cases where they do not interrupt communication (Krashen 2013). For instance, they can be used in the editing phase of writing. It is not anticipated that grammatical rules taught through various class activities would be in existence for impulsive utilization in conversation (Polio 2012). Most importantly, teachers should note that there is no anticipation that English students would acquire all the ‘learned rules of grammar.

nAt an intermediate stage of teaching English to non-native learners, require conversational language. Therefore, most of these students need proficient and advanced language that they can use in daily life such as in politics, science or business. In this regard, teacher should use innovative teaching method such as sheltered subject matter. It offers a comprehensive input for second language learners at intermediate level (Robinson, Mackey, Gass and Schmidt 2012). Moreover, at this stage, the teacher and learners concentrate subject matter rather than the language.

nTherefore, the teaching pay more attention on meaning of concepts and in grammar which produces extra comprehensible input hence more acquisition of English language among the non-native learners (Hüttner, Mehlmauer-Larcher, Reichl and Schiftner eds. 2011). More importantly, teachers should encourage learners to use self-selected reading. This form of reading is important because it acts as a bridge between academic language and conversational language (Ellis and Shintani 2013). For instance, learners who engage in more recreational reading demonstrate higher level of growth in vocabulary, grammar, writing and reading. Therefore, second language learners are able to show faster acquisition of English language (Krashen 2013). In addition, teachers can cultivate development of English language by encouraging learners to have continuous silent reading every day. Consequently, they would be able to acquire important aspects that can be used in their communication.

nConclusion

nThe theory of Second Language Acquisition by Krashen offers an important idea on learning and attainment or acquisition of language. It proposes five major hypotheses that explain how a particular language is acquired which include Affective Filter hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis and Acquisition Learning hypothesis. They theory can be applied in the teaching practices used in learning English as a second language (Robinson, Mackey, Gass and Schmidt 2012). In this respect, teacher must ensure that their teaching practices are comprehensible for both beginners and intermediate learners. By so doing, it will ensure that not only will students learn English appropriately but also attain the content as required.

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nReferences

nCook, V. and Singleton, D., 2014. Key topics in second language acquisition (Vol. 10). Multilingual matters.

nEllis, R. and Shintani, N., 2013. Exploring language pedagogy through second language acquisition research. Routledge.

nFerris, D., 2011. Treatment of error in second language student writing. University of Michigan Press.

nHüttner, J., Mehlmauer-Larcher, B., Reichl, S. and Schiftner, B. eds., 2011. Theory and practice in EFL teacher education (Vol. 22). Multilingual Matters.

nKrashen, S., 2013. Second language acquisition: Theory, applications, and some conjectures.

nNunan, D., 2012. Learner-centered English language education: The selected works of David Nunan. Routledge.

nPolio, C., 2012. The relevance of second language acquisition theory to the written error correction debate. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21(4), pp.375-389.

nRobinson, P., Mackey, A., Gass, S.M. and Schmidt, R., 2012. Attention and awareness in second language acquisition. The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition, pp.247-267.

nSmith, M.S. and Candlin, C.N., 2014. Second language learning: Theoretical foundations. Routledge.