Effects of Oil pollution on Marine Life

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nEffects of Oil pollution on Marine Life

nIntroduction

nOffshore oil spills can have devastating impacts on many components of the natural ecosystems. The effects of oil exposure to coastal wildlife and marine can be both long-term changes in behaviour and short-term impacts of health (Jernelöv, 3). This is because oil petrochemicals negatively affect the life on marine wildlife. Small amounts of oil spills in the marine can cause temporary physical damage to the marine animal. These include altering immune system, developmental or reproductive damages or skin irritations (Jason, 4). However, huge quantities of oil spills can lead to chronic effects such as deformities and direct morbidity of marine life. This paper focuses on effects of oil spills on marine life.1) Effects of oil on coral reefs

nOil spills produce significant impacts to the coral reefs habitat. Studies show that marine oil pollution causes short-term effects such as mortality to the corals reefs as well as long-term effects. Long term effects include sub-lethal impacts to growth and reproduction for more than five years after exposure to oil. Jernelöv, (13) conducted a study on coral reefs five years before the oil spill at Bahia Las Minas and three months after the oil spill. He noted that total coral reef cover reduced by more than 76 per cent in heavily oiled coral reefs (Jason, 7).

nIn addition, the coral habitat cover moderately decreased in coral reefs that were not heavily oiled. However, there was an increase or no change in total cover of coral reefs at unoiled reference reefs. Branching coral reefs are more sensitive to oil effects as compared to plate-like or massive coral. The branching species Acropora palmate in unoiled site had increased by 38 per cent, but it had nearly disappeared in the heavily oiled sites (Brink, et al, 188). Moreover, in oiled sited colony size and diversity had significantly decreased as compared to unoiled sites.

nStudies also suggest that acute effects of oil on coral reefs depend on the concentration of oil and the time of exposure. Low-level concentration of oils disintegrates tissues of coral reefs after 48 hours (Jernelöv, 38). Therefore, exposure to low concentration of oil to coral reefs for a longer period (4-48 hours) have more lethal effects than exposing them for a shorter time at higher concentration. For instance, low concentration of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) such as fluoranthene in oil for a short period enhanced phototoxicity of corals under outdoor light condition (Jason, 89). Coral reefs are likely to be affected by phototoxicity because they grow in clear shallow water hence oil reduces the penetration of light in the water leading to mortality.

nOil spills causes chronic effects such as biochemical, histological, behavioural, reproductive and developmental effects. Oil reduces the fertility and decrease reproductive success of coral reefs (Jernelöv, 28). In addition, it inhibits the development in early stages of life of coral species. Oil spills occurring at the peak of reproductive activity cause long-term adverse effects on coral reefs community (Jason, 91). Coral montastrea is a species in Florida, who have adverse reproductive impacts by oil between August and September because they have higher reproductive activity at this period.

nOil also impairs coral primary production by zooxanthellae symbionts and transfer of energy through coral mucus. These are the two fundamental components of the coral reef community (Jason, 17). Oil bioaccumulation readily occurs in coral reef tissues because they contain a high content of lipids. In addition, petrochemical chemicals are heavily deposited in calcareous corals exoskeleton (Jernelöv, 8). The coral reefs tissues absorb the petrochemical hydrocarbons compounds from the water. Besides the long-term effects of oil to coral leads to changes in calcification rate due to the high rate of acidification (Brink, et al, 189).2) Effects of oil spills on mangrove stands

nMangrove forests occur in many tropical regions in the coastal areas that are the interface between sea and land thus they are critical places where effects of spilled oil are (Santos, Luciana Cavalcanti Maia, et al, 10). Oil produces serious effect to mangrove stands such as loss of diversity, high rate of mortality, defoliation, phototoxicity, decreased canopy areas and increased sensitivity to other stresses.

nWhen highly vicious products of oil such as heavy fuel oil and crude oil cover the shore lines, they may physically cover mangrove (Sumaila, Rashid, et al, 06). Therefore, the plants die from starvation, suffocation or other physical interference with normal physiological function (Dos Santos, Henrique Fragoso, et al, 4). In addition, mangroves are more sensitive to lighter molecular hydrocarbons than hydrocarbons with higher molecular weight.

nOil consists of lower aromatic hydrocarbons that damage the cellular membranes in subsurface roots. This causes huge negative impacts to the mangrove because they impair the salt exclusion mechanisms in the mangroves roots filters (Hoffman, Andrew, and Devereaux, 12). It also induces oil-related stress to mangrove since the ion transport mechanisms affects the sodium to potassium ratios in mangroves leaves. Besides, oiled mangroves cause tissue mortality on pneumatophores in mangroves lenticels.

nMore subtle impacts of mangrove exposure to oil cause genetic damage that can lead to significant impacts of their population (Hoffman, Andrew, and Devereaux, 11). High concentration of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in soil leads to increased mutation of the mangrove habitat. Rhizophora mangle species have indicated chlorophyll deficiency after high exposure to oil contaminated environments. Besides, it indicated absence of pigmentations that allowed for recognition of the new genotype in mangrove trees.

nAcute toxicity of crude oil exposure to Avicennia marina mangrove seedlings causes immediate death or death after food reserves stored in propagules are exhausted in the plant. Studies by Smith, Lawrence, Murphy, and Paul, (3) show that the toxicity of mangrove depends on the type of oil exposure. For instance, light crude oil shows significantly high mortality of mangrove than Bunker crude oil.

nEffects of oil on mangrove such as stress often begin to occur after two weeks from exposure. The stress signs range from chlorosis to defoliation to death of trees (Santos, Luciana Cavalcanti Maia, et al, 5). There are no evidences of tree death immediately after oil spills. However, bands of dead and dying trees are often evident five months after oil spills.

nChronic effects of oil spills to mangrove show reproductive alterations and differences in growth rates (Sumaila, Rashid, et al, 6). Moreover, it reduces the mangroves ability to withstand other stresses that are non-spill- related (Dos Santos, Henrique Fragoso, et al, 4). However, depending on the type of oil exposed to mangrove, it may develop morphological adaptations to enable it survive chemical consequences of oil contamination.

nThe magnitude of impacts of oil exposure is related to physical factors that determine the persistence of oil on the shoreline and exposure to ocean waves (Santos, Luciana Cavalcanti Maia, et al, 3). Burrowing animals such as crabs reduce the persistence of oil in the mangrove regions since they cause penetration of oil into impermeable sediments. These animals determine whether oil impacts on mangrove are long term or short term. Oil impacts can cause more than half to complete death of trees ten years after exposure. This is compared to short-term effects of 17 per cent of trees deaths after six months of post-oiling.

n3) Oil effects of salt marches

nSalt marshes are situated in sheltered waters in temperate and cold areas. They are essential to a variety of plants, mammals life and birds because they act as a host (Silliman, Brian, et al, 14). Oil spills damages root systems of the vegetation of salt marsh. In 2010, the drilling vessels of BP-contracted Deepwater Horizon released more than 4.9 million barrels of crude oil into waters of Gulf of Mexico near Louisiana coast (Thibodeaux, Louis J., et al, 12). Huge volumes of crude oil found their way out to shoreline ecosystems. Reports show that salt marshes in Louisiana were influenced by oil spills effects ranging from moderate to serious impacts (Smith, et al, 19). Salt marshes in this region are very essential in maintaining the valuable ecosystem services such as fishing and tourism.

nAfter the BP- Deepwater horizon oil spill in the near-shore portion of the Louisiana, reports indicate that there was the high rate of mortality of salt march population (Silliman, Brian, et al, 20). Oil lethal effects interfere with the process of photosynthesis of the salt marsh. Moreover, oil interferes with the respiration system of the salt marches because the plant death occurs on high levels of oil coverage.

nOil also causes death of root matrix of the marshes that help to retard erosions by binding sediments and promoting the concentration of organic matter that act as adhesive agents (Smith, Lawrence, Murphy, and Paul, 11). The root matrix of salt marshes helps to maintain shoreline structures (Silliman, Brian, et al, 17). Oil spills causes death of stabilizing root matrix of the salt marshes which accelerated the marsh edge erosion from which marshes vegetation depends on (Thibodeaux, Louis J., et al, 14).4) Effects of oil spill on Fishing farms and fish landing sites

nOil spills can cause devastating damage to fishery and fishing landing sites as well as mariculture. This may be through toxic effects on fish, physical contamination or disrupting the marketing of fish (McCrea-Strub, A., et al, 13). Oil spills affect the quality of seafood produced from the fishing farms. Seafood may become physically tainted or physically contaminated hence acquiring an objectionable oil-related taste that affects the customers choices and preferences.

nCommercially viable sea animals and plants may be damaged due to oil smothering and toxicity. Seafood cultivation cycles may be which have serious economic effects on the aqua farming (Sumaila, Rashid, et al, 11). Moreover, fishing equipment and gears may be contaminated by oil which may lead to fishing activities being halted until the equipment are repaired or cleaned. Besides, deaths of operators can occur as well as interruption of subsistence commercial fishing activity.

nIn addition, the oil-contaminated fishing farms may lose the customers confidence hence they become reluctant to purchase seafood from those affected regions (McCrea-Strub, A., et al, 7). Loss of customers confidence is very detrimental to fishing even if there is no actual contamination of seafood.

nOil spills lead to long term damages to commercially viable adult free-shimming fish and wild stocks. This causes mortality to the confined animals and seafood products that are cultivated in a confined area (McCrea-Strub, A., et al, 8). The greatest effects may be found on the landing sites where plants and animals may be physically smothered or coated by oil for a long period. For instance, sedentary species such as shellfish and edible seaweeds are greatly affected since they are very sensitive to oil toxicity and smothering. Furthermore, may influence the behaviour of marine life because it changes the feeding habits, reproductive and growth functions.

nLight refined oil products such as kerosene or petrol contains higher amounts of low molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons. Therefore, they have higher potential to cause acute toxic effects to fish (Hoffman, Andrew, and Devereaux, 10). Marine life usually suffers acute toxicity following lighter spills of low molecular hydrocarbons. Oil chemical impairs the physiological conditions of the marine life causing disruption of respiration, increases the probability of genetic mutations of larvae and eggs, changes in reproduction and movement.

nFish species with high-fat content have a tendency to accumulate high amounts of petroleum hydrocarbons in their tissue (Smith, et al, 8). This affects the smell or the taste of the fish because it acquires that of the aromatic hydrocarbon. Persistence and the presence of the taint depend with the type of oil, duration and extent of exposure, or the hydrographical conditions.

nContaminated fish may raise the public health concerns which may affect the marketability of the fish or fish products (Smith, Lawrence, Murphy, and Paul, 7). This may cause restrictions of imports from those regions as well as reduction of prices from potential buyers and customers.5) Oil spill effects on sea birds

nOil spills can affect the seabirds by direct contact, destruction of food resources or toxic contamination. It is difficult to rescue oiled seabirds following an oil spills because feathers get matted down after getting in contact with oil (Henkel,et al 4). The matting causes the feathers to lose their insulating properties exposing the animal to risk of freezing to death.

nBesides, the fat under the skin of seabird insulates the body from cold. Oil increases penetration of cold water and it reaches the skin. An oil spot of 2.5-3.5 sq. centimetres during the cold season can cause death of the bird. It damages the insulating properties of the plumage, and the seabird freezes to death (hypothermia) (Smith, et al, 4). When the seabirds feathers are largely smeared by oil, it reduces the birds ability to fly which can result to death. Oil also increases the risk of drowning to seabirds as complex structures of feathers are damaged that causes buoyancy (capabilities of the bird to float on the water surface).

nThe seabirds may also ingest or inhale oil as they attempt to put their feathers in original state or clean themselves from oil (Smith, Lawrence, Murphy, and Paul, 5). This causes serious long-term health concerns such as kidney and lung damage, lung or intestinal haemorrhage pneumonia or congested lungs.

nOil spills also affect the seabird reproductive success because it influences the hatchability of the eggs (Hoffman, Andrew, and Devereaux, 12). Oil in the feathers of laying seabirds may pass via eggshells pores that kills the embryos or causes several deformities to chicks.

nOil also destroys food resources for the seabirds. Seabirds may consume contaminated food such as fish and other animals that are exposed to oil through ingestion. This causes death as contaminated foods causes immediate or long-term morbidities to the seabirds (Smith, Lawrence, Murphy, and Paul, 3). Moreover, seabirds may starve to death because they may refuse to eat oil-contaminated fish. Oil-contaminated fish have an unpleasant smell and tastes hence they are undesirable to birds. Oil spill may also cause rampant death to the food sources for birds, leaving no food resources for them to consume.6) Oil effects on the sea turtles

nSea turtles are susceptible to the effect of oil during the critical periods of development i.e. eggs, post hatchlings, juveniles and adults (Howard, et al, 3). The sea turtles behaviour and biological makeup increases their vulnerability to oil contamination. They lack avoidance behaviours and indiscriminate feeding as well as largely predictive inhalations in shoreline.

nThe impacts of oil on sea turtles include direct mortality due to oiling in hatchings, increases mortality of their eggs and cause developmental defects (Henkel,et al 3). Moreover, oil causes negative impacts on the turtles skin, immune systems, blood and salt glands. Large oil spills rarely occur but once they occur they have spectacularly devastating effects to the sea turtle populations.

nMoreover, low-level exposure to oil can occur through tar balls, slicks or elevated background concentrations that can increase the challenges facing the turtle animal (Smith, Lawrence, Murphy, and Paul, 12). Chronic exposure is not lethal to turtle, but they may increase the risk of the animal to withstand other forms of stresses (Howard, et al, 4).

nSince the turtles are vulnerable to oil at all stages of their development, rate, severity and effects of oil exposure vary by life stages (Smith, et al, 12). Oil transportation, exploration and processing affect the important sea turtle population. For instance, the U.S waters off Texas and Florida coast, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean overlaps with the development of the turtles (Santos, Luciana Cavalcanti Maia, et al, 11).

nEggs, embryos and hatchlings are more prone to oil contamination than adults. When oil spills occur at the last half to last quarter of the incubation period, it causes a significant decrease in the survival to hatching (Hoffman, Andrew, and Devereaux, 9). However, when oil spills occur at the beginning of incubation, the eggs may survive to hatching but the hatchling will have developmental deformities because of the significant deviations in the number of scunes.

nStudies suggest that the weathered oil have lower toxicity on the eggs than the fresh oils. This is because the oiled sand obtained from the oiled sites did not produce significant impacts on the hatchlings (Smith, Lawrence, Murphy, and Paul, 6). Therefore, oil toxicity on turtle eggs and nesting period would be more serious in fresh oil than in weathered oil (Hoffman, Andrew, and Devereaux, 9). Moreover, oil contamination affects the turtle female behaviours and biology on nesting. In oiled sites, female may refuse to nest which reduces their population.

nUnder normal conditions, nest sites are less likely to be affected by the stranding oil. However, due to storms or exceptional tides, oil may be deposited at higher than normal levels (Sumaila, Rashid, et al, 3). Besides, oil in the beach lie between the water and the nest hence female turtles visiting ashore would be exposed to the risk. Additionally, oil reduces the hatchability of the eggs because it interferes with gas exchange within the nest.

nHatchlings are at a greater risk from oiled beaches because they have not developed their swimming mechanisms, lack motility and have poor feeding habits (Henkel,et al 9). A hatchling is greatly impaired or overwhelmed physically by tar patty or oil slicks. Hatchlings spends much of their time in sea water surface relative to the adults hence they have a higher risk of exposure to floating oil slicks (Howard, et al, 8).

nTurtle adults and juveniles have indiscriminate eating behaviours. They have no avoidance behaviour when they come into contact with oil sticks. They also eat anything that register as being in the appropriate size for their foods such as tar balls (Smith, Lawrence, Murphy, and Paul, 15). This causes esophageal defects because tar balls get trapped in the digestive systems.

nThis causes serious physiological effects because the esophageal swelling causes displacement of the intestines and the liver thus causing severe swelling near their stomachs (Barron, 9). The digestive system problems lead to starvation, bacterial infections and buoyancy problems. Adults sea turtles diving behaviour exposes them to petroleum vapour when they rapidly inhale large volume of oil-contaminated air before they diving.

nAdditionally, oil ingested is not easily absorbed through the digestive system. It is retained for several days hence increasing the probability to toxic compounds (Hoffman, Andrew, and Devereaux, 12). Prolonged exposure to oil disrupts the feeding hence causes poor body conditions and death.7) Oil spill effect on sea mammals

nBPs Deepwater Horizon drilling unit in the Gulf of Mexico led to oil spills in 2010 which had a significant effect on the lives of the marine mammals (Henkel,et al 4). Marine mammals include dolphins, whales, polar bears, seals, walruses, sea lions, sea otters, porpoises and manatees. Oil spill can affect the marine mammals through inhalation, direct contact, disturbances from response activities, ingestion of oil and injury (Howard, et al, 3). In the Gulf of Mexico, there are twenty-one cetacean species and one sirenian species of mammals.

nAll the species of marine mammal stocks in the Gulf of Mexico were affected by Deepwater horizon spills since 2010 (Smith, Lawrence, Murphy, and Paul, 7). The effects were manifested by changes in the reproduction and vulnerability to survival risks. The effects could be indirect such as reduction in the number of available prey or habitat degradation. Direct effects of the spills to marine mammals include contact with oil and interaction with response activities.

nThe assessment conducted by Sumaila, Rashid, et al, (15) after oil spills in the Gulf of Mexico indicated that the inhalation of volatile organic oil constituents caused inflammation, respiratory irritations and emphysema (Smith, et al, 2). In addition, ingestion of oil caused inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, diarrheal maldigestion or ulcers to the marine mammals after oil spills (Hoffman, Andrew, and Devereaux, 6). Certain constituents of oil that were inhaled or ingested caused reproductive failure among the marine mammals.

nSimilarly, the oil chemical damaged the liver, kidney spleen and brain tissues (Smith, Lawrence, Murphy, and Paul, 5). Certain marine mammals indicated congenital defects signs of cancer and suppression of the immune system as well as severe anaemia after exposure to oil. Besides, direct exposure to oil caused eye and skin irritations, burns to mucous membranes, inflammation and increased vulnerability to infections (Henkel,et al 4). Oil chemical can also cause physical malfunctioning of the baleen in mysticete whales. The baleen is useful for filtering of food in whales.

nThe clean-up activities following the oil spills can affect the lives of marine mammals in the sea (Sumaila, Rashid, et al, 19). Increase air and vessel traffic during the exercise may interfere with migratory movement, habitat use, foraging or daily behaviours such as resting patterns and breathing. Noise from the seismic surveys or other response related activities may cause permanent hearing loss, displacement, or disturbances.

nSimilarly, response activities may cause physical injuries to mammals such as dolphins and whales (Henkel,et al 9). Oil spill response activities affect the marine ecosystems that negatively influence marine mammals through anoxia and hypoxia and harmful algal blooms.

nBPs deepwater horizon oil spills affected the mammals indirectly by altering the marine ecosystems and crucial features of their habitat (Sumaila, Rashid, et al, 10). Oil spill reduced sea grass biomass, reduction in the availability of prey, and changed the distribution of prey and sea grass (Howard, et al, 10). Besides, oil contaminated nearshore environment as well as prey and sea grass that appeared to influence the recovery of sea otters. In the Gulf of Mexico, spilled oil had accumulated in the offshore and coastal bottom sediments that could be re-distributed during storms or hurricanes causing recurring effects on the marine ecosystems.8) Oil spills effects on desalination plants

nOil spills in the sea tend to affect efficient performance of the desalination plants. For instance oil spill in the Arabian Gulf from Mina Al-Ahmedi affected the operations of sea water desalination plants in the eastern coast of Saudi Arabia (Barron, 18). The presence of oil in the water close to the desalination plants affect the quality of water because it changes the pleasant taste of the water making it unsafe for drinking purposes (Barron, Mace, 13).

nIn addition, oil constituents enter the plants equipment thus interfering with the operations and decreasing the optimum performance of the plant. The constituents of oil may find their way into the plant lagoon (Hoffman, Andrew, and Devereaux, 16). The oil constituent may also end up in process streams, which may ultimately find their way into the distillate water. Oil chemicals are harmful to human health even in small quantities in the water may create a health hazard.

nThe distillate water from the desalination plants was analysed and it was found to contain 0.35 mg/L of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) after the oil spills in Arabian Gulf (Barron, 13). The results show that the desalination plants were incapable to completely remove the organic contaminants of oil in the sea water.

nOther oil constituents that were found in the content water include toluene and benzene that can cause adverse health after consumption (Hoffman, Andrew, and Devereaux, 16). These constituents are considerably soluble in water at a concentration of 800 mg/L. Other oil-related contaminants that were detected in the distillate water include phenolic compounds, and trihalomethanes which affected the quality of desalinated water after the spills (Smith, et al, 13). The odour and taste of the desalinated water were found to be affected by oil constituents. In addition, due to the presence of benzene in the water it increased the cancer risk of people since spilled oil contains benzene.

nIn the process of desalination, the chlorination process produced chlorophenols (Smith, Lawrence, Murphy, and Paul, 3). These products are acutely toxic to human if consumed at small concentration in the drinking water. Besides, if present at higher concentrations, it increases the risk of cancer to human beings (McCrea-Strub, A., et al, 13).9) Oil spill effect on industrial areas

nBP deepwater horizon oil spill interrupted a delicate ecosystem where many industries depend on to operate their activities hence leading to negatively economic impacts in the country (Sumaila, Rashid, et al, 05). Industries in the Gulf of Mexico include shipping, fisheries and resorts. Following the oil spill many gulf industries wereshut down while some lost many businesses that affected their sources of income.

nOil spill in the Gulf of Mexico affected the shipping industry in Alabama, Texas and Louisiana. The port of Louisiana is very essential in United States because it is responsible for most imports out of any state (Smith, et al, 19). The crude oil refineries were affected because Louisiana port imports more than 15 % of United States supplies of oil and grains. Therefore, many of the processing industries such as oil refineries and flour processing were not operating because tankers would not be allowed to dock in the contaminated waters.

nMost ships were stopped and cleaned before they were allowed to continue, which slowed the industrial processes (Barron, 8). As a result of the closure of industries the prices of certain foods and gas increased due to loss of imports (Crowder, and Selina, 4). Many industries that use sea water as engine coolants were affected because they could not use contaminated water for cooling their industries.

nOil spill also led to the closure of seafood processing industries. For instance, prices of seafood such as shrimp and oysters increased because fishermen could not get to key fishing areas (Hoffman, Andrew, and Devereaux, 10). Moreover, many employees in fish processing industries lost their jobs because many industries were shutting down or reduced the number of staff to safe cost.10) Effects of oil on touristic areas and recreational sites

nGreat negative economic impacts are felt by countries that heavily rely on clean coastal area. Oil spills influence the tourism sector since the recreational sites at the coast are greatly affected (Hoffman, Andrew, and Devereaux, 13). Tourism is a key source of livelihood in many coastal areas all over the world, and the presence of oil in the sea can have serious consequences during the tourism season.

nOil spills disrupt the normal coastal activities such as boating, bathing and diving. This reduces the number of tourists which impacts negatively on the owners of hotels, bars and restaurants (Howard, et al, 6). In addition, sailing schools, caravan parks and camp sites as well as other businesses that gain their livelihood from tourism are adversely affected.

nFurthermore, restaurants serving seafood may record losses after the supply of the fish reduces. Other businesses stakeholders who are supply the hoteliers may experience reduced income because their sources of income will reduce (Sumaila, Rashid, et al, 15). Many of the holidaymakers may decide to cancel their booking in the tourist sites affected by the oil spills. This may cause dire consequences to transport companies who earn a living from transporting the holidaymakers (Smith, et al, 11). It may also lead to losses in commercial businesses, as a result, of reduced receipts from car parks in the coastal town local authorities.

nThe contaminated beaches may be closed during clean-up activities. This increases nuisance to the local people due to oil and presence of a lot of equipment and people during the exercise (Howard, et al, 14). It may also cause secondary contamination due to the movement of heavy machinery and trucks to and from affected tourists sites.

nDuring heavy weather, oil may be transported to holiday buildings, cars or caravans close to the shore or along the seafront (Smith, Lawrence, Murphy, and Paul, 5). The holiday homes may require repainting or cleaning of the private shorelines. This may present difficulties if the proprietors are absent and their permission is needed to access the shorelines.

nRecreational facilities such as seawater swimming pools, aquariums and thalassotherapy require a constant supply of fresh sea water. Water entering the facilities is screened off debris and passes through filters beds (Barron, 18). However, oil may still get into these facilities especially if light refined oil products are spilled (McCrea-Strub, A., et al, 3). The recreational facility will face many challenges it may be closed or experience reduced number of attendances. The aquariums incur a high cost of repairs and mitigation from the damages experienced after the oil spill.

nThe management of the recreational sites will be required to purchase new animals for the facilities in case of deaths. They may also need to replace the filters of the depending on the magnitude of oil contaminations and volumes of water required.Conclusion

nOil spills rarely occur but once they happen, they cause devastating ecological, health, economic consequences to marine ecosystems and countries economy. Coral reefs are greatly affected by oil spills. Oil causes short-term and long-term effects to the coral reefs. Short-term effects to coral habitats include immediate mortality. Long term effects include sub-lethal impacts to growth and reproduction for more than five years after exposure to oil chemicals. Mangroves forests are adversely affected because oil produces serious effects such as loss of diversity, high rate of mortality, defoliation, phototoxicity, decreased canopy areas and increased sensitivity to other stresses. Oil spills damages root systems of the salts marshes. Sea turtles are affected by oil during critical periods of development i.e. eggs, post hatchlings, juveniles and adults. They lack avoidance behaviours, indiscriminate feeding and large inhalations in shoreline. Oil spills influence the tourism sector since the recreational sites at the coast are greatly affected. Desalination plants efficiencies are also affected by oil spills most of the oil constituents are found in distillate water. Oil affects the quality of fish. Toxic effects of oil on fish involve physical contamination or disrupting the marketing value fish from polluted regions. Oil spills affect the quality of seafood produced from the fishing farms. Seafood may become physically tainted or physically contaminated hence acquiring an objectionable oil-related taste. Oil pollution in marine ecology causes death and physical disabilities t