Bioethics

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nEthical issues in Biomedicine

nEthical consideration forms a crucial aspect in the field of biomedicine. Due to dramatic changes in health sciences in the past decades, ethical issues in biomedicines have attracted a lot of attention in the development of public policy. For instance, in the process of cloning humans via transfer of nuclear in somatic cells. Policies concerning organ xenotrasportation, transplantation, retrieval and donation restrict the application of biomedical technology in extending life, experimentation on animals and humans, medically enabled reproduction and genetic therapies. In this respect, ethical issues must be incorporated in these activities (Steinbock, London, & Arras, 2013, p. 366). Additionally, ethical considerations play a vital role in long-term issues that affect the field of biomedicine, such as the responsibilities of health experts in the community and the role of health professionals in research. Most importantly, ethical issues affect the enactment of policies in the health sciences.

nIn a biomedical research and publication, it is crucial to consider the ethical areas in a research. In particular, ethical norms involve social responsibility, integrity and honesty in the research process (Beauchamp, 2014, p. 102). The researcher needs to be sensitive and knowledgeable in issues such as careful strategy in research, interpretation, data collection and research design. Moreover, a researcher should ensure that there is confidentiality of personal records and research respondents. Furthermore, the researcher should always acknowledge the source of information (Steinbock, London, & Arras, 2013, p. 367). Patients who are included in the biomedical research should be protected from risks especially the vulnerable groups. Informed consent is very crucial, particularly from the parents or guardian. In case of a research involving animals, proper care and minimum suffering and pain in the course of the experiment should be put into consideration. Ethical issues in cloning are complex and require careful consideration.

nReproductive cloning is not used on a commercial basis, but cloning animals are commonly used in production of livestock. Most notably, some people oppose cloning based on their religion. However, therapeutic cloning is important as it produces tissues and organs for patients that cannot acquire transplants (Munson, 2012, p. 47). Moreover, scientist advocates the reproductive cloning because it helps parents who cannot procreate to get children. Opponents argue that cloning is not safe because it is prone to abuse.

nEffects of ethical decision making on human behavior in relation to biomedicine

nThe ethical decision-making produces positive consequences in the field of biomedicine. In particular, it helps to promote the rights of human beings and develops cordial interrelationship between the doctor and patient. According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, medical personnel have an ethical responsibility to protect the human dignity and human rights of the patient (Munson, 2012, p. 47). A medical doctor has a role to ensure special protection of human rights for the persons who are unable to consent such as children. Moreover, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) also require the medical professionals to promote the human rights. UNESCO acquired Universal Declaration on Human Rights and Biomedicine in order to ensure medical ethics are applied in scientific knowledge, technologies and medical practices. Besides, health experts should put into account the human vulnerability (Beauchamp, 2014, p. 103). Therefore, personal integrity should be protected and respected in persons or groups with special vulnerability.

nEthical consideration prevents conflicts between the doctor and patient as it creates cordial relationship. A patient with sound mind should be allowed to make informed decisions even if they contradict with the best interest of the physician. A practitioner should balance the patients interest and desires for potentially harmful risk against the informed independence of the patients concerning the issue (Munson, 2012, p. 51). A physician may decide to use the autonomy because failure to satisfy the patients needs and desires may affect the physician-patient relationship. Moreover, disrespect of autonomy of the patient may decrease the medical experts confidence in the provision of services in the population. Therefore, patients may reduce their willingness to seek help from the doctor. Consequently, physician performance in the provision of services may reduce.

nThe reasoning of opposing perspectives on ethical issues in biomedicine

nVarious opposing perspectives on ethical issues in biomedicine include religious beliefs and government stances concerning destruction, usage and destruction of human embryos. For instance, there are controversies concerning the use of embryonic stem cells. Adult stems have generated many beneficial therapies such as Heart damage, Parkinsons disease and sickle-cell anemia. They also provide better results as compared to the application of embryonic stem cells (Munson, 2012, p. 57). Some countries such as Ireland, France, Austria and Germany do not permit the use of embryonic stems cells. In the United States, the law bars federal government from funding the Department of Health to carry out research that leads to embryo destruction in spite of the origin of that embryo. However, the government permits funding of Human Embryonic Stem Cells (hESC) based on ethical issues (Beauchamp, 2014, p. 105). Nonetheless, private and public research on the blood stem cell is not regulated. Religious groups oppose cloning and adult stem cell because they occupy the place of God in creation.

nPersons who oppose the human Embryonic Stem Cell research argue that life begins after fertilization. The majority of religious groups argues that the process of development of the embryo to fetus and ultimately to the child should be protected (Beauchamp, 2014, p. 139). Moreover, many religious groups do not support the killing of the embryo because they assume that the fetus acquires a soul at the time of fertilization. Therefore, the religious groups argue that the moral aspect of life should be given the first priority as compared to other factors such as health. In this regard, they argue that the killing of a fetus is unacceptable (Munson, 2012, p. 57). However, most of the churches support studies on stem cells because they do not constitute killing of human beings. On the other hand, the Muslims argue that research on stem cells from human beings should only be allowed if they could produce beneficial effects to the population.

nEthical theories relating to biomedicine

nEthical theories in biomedicine generate the ethical principles that guide the practice of medical professionals. Some of the ethical theories include natural law, deontology, and utilitarianism and virtue theories. Natural law is linked to religious beliefs as it argues that human life is inseparable from the nature (Beauchamp, 2014, p. 142). Therefore, the theory states that human life is divine according to Gods law. However, deontology theory states that the most crucial aspect of human life is guided by some permanent moral rules. According to this theory, these laws are unbreakable, regardless of whether breaking them would improve the life of human beings (Munson, 2012, p. 61). For instance, the Ten Commandments provide a list of examples that are “unbreakable” laws. Moreover, utilitarianism states that it is beneficial to promote value or good ends instead of applying the right means. In particular, the theory argues that it is important to use outcomes that are likely to produce the best results for the majority of the affected population through the impartial means. Therefore, the theory advocates have accomplished the best results for the majority of the population.

nThe theory forms the basis for most of the social policies. Furthermore, the virtue theory inquires what a “good person” can perform under specific real-life circumstances. The theory discusses some of the virtues in the human traits such as charity, faith, justice, wisdom and temperance as the most important aspect of humanity (Munson, 2012, p. 61). These theories suggest that a medical practitioner should consider moral principles in performing their mandate. They should deal honestly with their patients, having informed consent before performing certain therapies, research and procedures. Furthermore, medical experts should respect and protect personal values of the patients (Munson, 2012, p. 62). Therefore, physicians should be guided by patients autonomy in their actions. In addition, the medical expert should understand the values of the patient when making ethical decisions. When the patient is too young to make informed decisions the medical professional should be guided by the parent or guardian when making decisions. Most notably, medical practitioners are required to make decisions regarding patients who refuse medical interventions on religious grounds.

nConclusion

nMedical practitioners should consider ethics in biomedicine since they play a critical role in meeting the patients desires and needs. A physician needs to incorporate the patients autonomy when making ethical decisions. Moreover, informed consent ensures physicians have the moral authority to conduct medical procedures, research and other processes. Ethical decision-making is beneficial as it ensures confidentiality of information from the subjects (Beauchamp, 2014, p. 117). It also promotes the human rights pursuant to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

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nReferences

nBeauchamp, T. (2014). Contemporary issues in bioethics. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

nMunson, R. (2012). Intervention and reflection. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

nSteinbock, B., London, A., & Arras, J. (2013). Ethical issues in modern medicine. (8th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.