Europes Scientific Revolution

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nIntroduction

nThe scientific revolution was one of the major developments in the tradition of western intellectual. The period changed the way persons viewed the world and transforming man thought process. Consequently, there was an emergence of modern science and development of biology, astronomy, physics and mathematics. Scientific revolution in Europe began in the final period of Renaissance between 1550 and 1700 (Hansen, & Curtis, 2010, p. 4). Prior to the Renaissance period, many people accepted the ideas of religious people as the truth and did not question it. Nonetheless, during the Renaissance, they started to develop a new perspective about the world that led to the emergency of thinkers who invented different scientific principles. For instance, scientific revolution started with Copernicus Nicholas between 1473 and 1543 who was a Polish thinker and Astronomer (Huff, 2011, p.6). Copernicus asserted sun-centered (heliocentric cosmos). The beginning of the scientific revolution was marked by the development of anatomy by Vesalius in 1543 (Cohen, 2007, p.1). In addition, the scientific revolution ended with Isaac Newton (1642-1727) who invented a mechanical motion and laws of the universe.

nThe medieval world contributed to the development of the scientific revolution in Europe. In this respect, people believed that the nature and earth are controlled by gods miracles, which forever existed. In addition, it was the responsibility of supernatural being (GOD) to produce order in the universe via the miracles, therefore, the entire world was dependent on faith in God (Rosenberg, 2009, p. 207). During the time of Petrarch, between 1304 and 1374, some individuals had more interest in the form of miracle.

nThey changed the idea that human beings should not only believe in the miracle existence, but should get more information about a particular miracle. Therefore, people started to demand what order a miracle conformed to in the universe (Hansen, & Curtis, 2010, p. 104). Moreover, elements such as water, earth, fire and air were considered to trail a particular law of nature. People believed that water and earth were heavy, so they moved downwards while the air and fire were light hence they moved upwards. An Egyptian astronomer and geographer Claudius Ptolemy (c.90 to c. 168) proposed a system where the stars were located around the planets such as the earth. The earth was located at the center of nine concentric spheres in a fixed position (Huff, 2011, p.7). The Sun, Moon and other planets such as the Jupiter, Mars, Mercury and Venus were located around the earth. Moreover, God caused the movement of the Sun and the Moon. According to Ptolemy, the planets moved in retrograde motion where they moved in a single direction, then change and moved in their previous direction (Rosenberg, 2009, p. 208). However, during the mid-16th century, the Ptolemaic system was replaced by another theory that marked the beginning of New Science.

nA Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus in 1473 challenged the Ptolemaic system and proposed a heliocentric universe. He explained that the sun was at the center of the cosmos. Moreover, the earth and other planets moved around the sun (Shapin, 2008, p.35). However, the scientist failed to explain why the object moved downwards to the surface of the earth because the idea of gravity was not well established (Huff, 2011, p.9). In addition, he rejected the medieval opinion that the universe was a system between man and God.

nThe scientist suggested that the earth rotates on its axis and revolves in its orbit around the sun. The people believed that the superior authority was the Holy Writ, so Copernicus feared that people would not accept his theory (Cook, 2012, p. 1). In this regard, he only published his concepts in 1543- the year he died. He produced a book “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies”, which was devoted to Pope Paul III (Hansen, & Curtis, 2010, p. 240).

nMoreover, he understood that it was difficult to convince the people at the time and he decided to make special recommendations to mathematicians. Most importantly, he believed that only mathematicians who could appreciate and understand the system and its order. He never thought that his findings could make sense to the non-specialists (Huff, 2011, p.9).

nHowever, in 1572, a Danish astronomer, Brahe Tycho observed a new star in Cassiopeia constellation. It was produced more light than any other star even in daylight for more than two years. In 1600, another star appeared and was investigated by Kepler Jonnes. The happenings challenged traditional thinking about nature (Rosenberg, 2009, p. 211). People started to see that the stars were changing and their fate seemed to be in balance.

nMoreover, Kepler utilized the Copernicus theory to explain three laws of motion in the planets. These laws were published in 1619, which explained that planets used an elliptical motion to move (Cook, 2012, p. 2). The second law discussed the changing planets speed to move in a retrograde motion. Thirdly, the law of planetary motion explained the movement of one planet is connected to the other. With the invention of the laws of the universe tailored with heliocentric universe, the planets path was determined. However, the scientist failed to explain what held the planets in one unit around the sun (Hansen, & Curtis, 2010, p. 119).

nIn the 17th century the greatest knowledge about mechanics were offered by Italian mathematician and philosopher, Galileo Galilei. In addition, the century was marked by invention of instruments of measurements. Galileo played a crucial role in discovering the accurate measurement of time via clocks (Huff, 2011, p.37). He used experiments to explain the motions of falling objects and assess the mechanics of motion. After learning new development in Holland, about the discovery of lens grinder, he made his own telescope and a compound microscope. A glass industry in Holland had appropriate skills to produce lenses that were useful in telescopes and microscopes (Shapin, 2008, p.88).

nGalileo used his telescope in the port to observe approaching ships. In addition, he applied the instrument to observe heavenly bodies such as the number stars and differentiate the Jupiter moons. The scientist was able to manufacture lenses at the magnification of 1000 times in 1609 (Hansen, & Curtis, 2010, p. 123).

nPrior to the period, Galileo invented the simple thermometer and in 1643, his student, Torricelli, used mercury to produce first barometer that was useful in the measurement of atmospheric pressure (Rosenberg, 2009, p. 222). In addition, during this period, there was improvement of mathematical knowledge. Development of the decimal system, logarithms introduction and slide rule took place. Furthermore, essential foundations included development of geometry and algebra (Hansen, & Curtis, 2010, p. 5). Most importantly, the invention of mathematical principles and instruments of measurement helped scientist to pursue independent concepts from philosophy.

nIn the field of anatomy, there was inadequate information on human body before scientific revolution. However, during this period, scientists began care anatomical studies using copses that facilitated many scientific discoveries. Erwin Panofsky was the first person to produce an accurate human embryo drawings after invenstion of printing. Andreas Vesalius began dissecting human bodies and he published his work in the book “On the Fabric of the Human Body”. The scientist had discovered many structures of the human body and he used illustration to show human anatomy. Besides, his work was accurate and comprehensive that became the foundations of modern anatomy. Vesalius also introduced a new method of studying anatomy and better techniques of correcting errors. In 1628, a British physician William Harvey made great development in the field of medicine. He proposed that blood circulated constantly in the body (Cohen, 2007, p. 5). Harvey was able to measure the amount of blood that was pumped by the heart (Shapin, 2008, p.49). In addition, he proved the theory of Colombo and Servetus that proposed that blood from the heart is aerated in the lungs and then pumped to the heart where it is circulated to the rest of the body. Nonetheless, he was unable to prove how the blood flows from veins into arteries (Hansen, & Curtis, 2010, p. 23). Fortunately, Malpighi Marcello was able to prove that when he discovered frog capillaries in the lungs.

nFrancis Bacon in England, and Descartes in the 17th century started transforming the world from a superstition and ignorance to more logical and disciplined methods. The two scientists were ecumenical in their strategies because many inventions had not taken place. Moreover, they advised the people to dispose the ancients ideas and principles of Aristotle and Plato (Huff, 2011, p.11). Bacon introduced new study methods of nature through experiment and experience, and proposed “hypothesis” during scientific revolutions. He introduced scientific methods as a planned way of investigating all concepts in nature rather than relying on theoretical and rhetorical framework (Shapin, 2008, p.60).

nDescartes introduced a new logic after he started doubting everything. The first famous phrase by Descartes was “I think, therefore, I am.” He was a philosopher of science and a mathematician who introduced analytic geometry (Rosenberg, 2009, p. 224).

nIsaac Newton transformed the mechanics of motion explained by Galileo Galilei and the three planetary laws of motion by Kepler into a universal law of motion. The new law replaced the ancient Aristotelian cosmos law. The transformation to the Universe from Cosmos marked the new era of change to Mechanical World View from organic World picture. Isaac newton comprehensively confirmed the laws of motions and associated them with planetary laws of motion proposed by Kepler (Hansen, & Curtis, 2010, p. 233). Prior to this invention, nobody had confirmed conclusively that heavenly body movement is related to terrestrial science (Rosenberg, 2009, p. 245). However, Galileo had attempted to suggest the idea, but he was arrested and ordered to remain under house arrest by Church authorities and he could not prove his theories.

nThe first stage in the work of Newton was to confirm the Galileo laws of motion that attempted to explain movement of objects. The first theory suggests that an object at rest tends to remain at rest unless an outside force is applied. The second law of motion argues that change in motion is proportional to the used force and occur in the straight line in which the force was used. The third Newtons law of motion suggests that action and reaction force are equal and opposite. Applying these dynamic theories, Isaac Newton ascertained that the force produced movement of the moon and planets and it was responsible for causing a stone to fall to the earth (Shapin, 2008, p.93).

nNewton used experiments to show how gravity acted on bodies on the earth of the earth towards the center of the earth. In addition, he demonstrated how the gravitational force causes the earth revolving on its orbit and rotations of the moon around the earth. Therefore, Newton explained the structure of the solar system by conclusively showing that gravitational force acted on these heavenly bodies (Huff, 2011, p.12). Newtons laws of gravity significantly contributed to the scientific revolution because it developed calculus and mathematical concepts.

nConclusion

nNewton also discovered that a force that attract a spherical body to the center of the orbit could be calculated by assuming that the body mass was at the center (Cook, 2012, p. 5). Newtons invention was the final steps towards producing a scientific revolution in Europe. Moreover, his theory generated a structural model and inverse functions depending on universal gravitational that is applicable even today and is confirmed via calculations and observation (Hansen, & Curtis, 2010, p. 235). The findings became revolutionary and were accepted as the new foundation of all future astronomy.

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nReferences

nPrimary Sources

nCook, H. J. (2012). Moving About and Finding Things Out: Economies and Sciences in the Period of the Scientific Revolution. Osiris, 27(1), 101-132.

nCohen, H. (2007). The scientific revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

nSecondary Sources

nHansen, V., & Curtis, K. (2010). Voyages in world history. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

nHuff, T. (2011). Intellectual curiosity and the scientific revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

nRosenberg, G. (2009). The revolution in geology from the Renaissance to the enlightenment. Boulder, Colo.: Geological Society of America.

nShapin, S. (2008). The scientific revolution (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.