TitleFactors Affecting the Recent Increase in Juvenile Female Offenders in United States

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nAbstractOver the last ten years, female offenders in Justice Systems have increased. The rate of female delinquent cases increased by 10 percent from 19 percent in 1990s to 29 percent in 2003. Additionally, female arrests in 2004 accounted for more than 30 percent of all juvenile arrests and more than 19 percent of all violent juvenile arrests. Girls peer pressure can have negative consequences especially the risk of antisocial behaviors that contribute to early delinquencies. Majority of female delinquents have a record of use of drug. Changing economic and social conditions, generational influences, family dynamics, environmental effects, and technology, in females are contributing factors to a growing trend in female offences. Many delinquent females are victims of violence and abuse. Therefore, the girls will make decisions to numb their mental and emotional pain of trauma during childhood with drugs and alcohol. Consequently, this has increased the rate of female offenders in the Juvenile Justice System.

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nTable of Contents

n TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc397505289″Title PAGEREF _Toc397505289 h 1

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505290″Abstract PAGEREF _Toc397505290 h 2

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505291″CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION PAGEREF _Toc397505291 h 4

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505292″Research questions PAGEREF _Toc397505292 h 6

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505293″Objectives PAGEREF _Toc397505293 h 6

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505294″General objective PAGEREF _Toc397505294 h 6

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505295″Specific objectives PAGEREF _Toc397505295 h 6

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505296″Null hypothesis PAGEREF _Toc397505296 h 7

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505297″Hypothesis PAGEREF _Toc397505297 h 7

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505298″CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW PAGEREF _Toc397505298 h 8

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505299″Early female criminality theories PAGEREF _Toc397505299 h 8

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505300″Changing society PAGEREF _Toc397505300 h 9

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505301″Contemporary juvenile systems of justice PAGEREF _Toc397505301 h 10

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505302″Ways into the juvenile system of justice PAGEREF _Toc397505302 h 11

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505303″Social Learning theory: Attention, Peers and family PAGEREF _Toc397505303 h 11

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505304″Substance abuse and Mental health issues PAGEREF _Toc397505304 h 13

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505305″Trends PAGEREF _Toc397505305 h 13

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505306″CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY PAGEREF _Toc397505306 h 15

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505307″Research design PAGEREF _Toc397505307 h 15

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505308″Variables PAGEREF _Toc397505308 h 15

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505309″Independent variables PAGEREF _Toc397505309 h 15

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505310″Dependent variables PAGEREF _Toc397505310 h 15

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505311″Study population PAGEREF _Toc397505311 h 16

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505312″Research instruments PAGEREF _Toc397505312 h 16

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505313″Data collection technique PAGEREF _Toc397505313 h 16

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505314″Data Analysis PAGEREF _Toc397505314 h 17

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505315″Ethical Consideration PAGEREF _Toc397505315 h 17

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505316″Annotated bibliography PAGEREF _Toc397505316 h 18

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505317″References PAGEREF _Toc397505317 h 23

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505318″Appendix PAGEREF _Toc397505318 h 25

nHYPERLINK l “_Toc397505319″Questionnaire PAGEREF _Toc397505319 h 25

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nCHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

nOver the last ten years, reports have indicated that the rate of juvenile crime is reducing in the United States. However, although the overall rate of juvenile delinquencies is reducing there are areas of concern particularly in female offences. Most notably, female offenders in Justice Systems have increased. From 1990s the number of offences committed by females has tremendously risen (Chesney-Lind, M., & Pasko, 2012). Reports have documented that the number of male offenders have been significantly reducing while the number of female offenders have been increasing. Therefore, female delinquents are becoming more violent and are arrested at younger ages (Goldweber, Cauffman, & Cillessen, 2013). This is contrary to the historical reports where males enter the Juvenile Justices Systems at younger ages than females.

nAt the early stages of adolescence, female become more complicated in terms of their social ties, knowledge of others and motivation to achieve acceptance as compared to their male counterparts (Chesney-Lind, & Belknap, 2004). In addition, girls peer pressure can have negative consequences especially the risk of antisocial behaviors that contribute to early delinquencies (Chesney-Lind, & Pasko, 2012). This is because friends within incarcerated settings put substantial control and influence. For instance, they influence the females on drug and substance use and sway their decisions. Peer pressure influences the girls aggression (Schwartz, & Steffensmeier, 2012). The underlying factors in high number of female delinquencies are the effects of substance use and abuse. Peer influence has been the contributing factor in women offenders (Chesney-Lind, M., & Shelden, 2013). Majority of female delinquents have a record of use of drug and/or offences related to drug use.

nIn 1990s, the number of female involved in Justice Systems in the United States doubled (Carrington, 2006). The report findings have revealed that in every 100, 000 women there are 68 females serving in either federal or state prison. Currently, women account for more than 7 percent of total federal and state prison populations (Chesney-Lind, M., & Shelden, 2013). Additionally, they account for 25 percent of persons on community supervision.

nFor the last 25 years, peoples understanding and knowledge of the lives of women have increased tremendously (Leve, & Chamberlain, 2004). The new information has influenced women lives in the field of education, health, substance abuse and employment. Developmental theories reveal that association with deviant peers increases the susceptibility to negative influence (Goldweber, Cauffman, & Cillessen, 2013). This is a contributing factor to female delinquency.

nIn addition, antisocial persons affiliate themselves with deviant peers and the affiliation is associated with a persons own delinquencies. The socialization and selection process makes the females more similar in antisocial behaviors (Steffensmeier, Schwartz, Zhong, & Ackerman, 2005). However, after adolescence the individuals become resistant from peer pressure.

nHigh numbers of incarcerated female have reported that they were under the influence of drugs and alcohol use at the time of committing an offense (Schwartz, & Steffensmeier, 2012). Survey of female offenders have revealed higher proportions of females using drugs, including regular use, lifetime use and/or use of drugs at the occasions of their offences relative to male offenders (Zahn, (Ed.). 2009). Therefore, substance abuse has significant effects on female offenders. In the last ten years, female arrestees who are regular users of drugs increased by 11.6 percent as compared to a 3.1 percent decline in the proportion of male arrestee (Chesney-Lind, M., & Pasko, 2012). According to Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring, substance use is the underlying factor for a female offender at the time of arrest. Further, reports indicates that 63 percent of women tested positive to illicit drugs as compared to 60 percent among the male offenders who tested positive (DeLeon-Granados, Wells, & Binsbacher, 2006). In addition, female arrestees are more likely to report heavy substance use and heavy consumption of alcohol.

nResearch questionsDoes peer pressure among females contribute to a high number of female offenders?

nDo substance use and abuse among females influence the rate of female delinquencies?

nDo family problems involving female teenagers influence the current rate of female offenders?

nObjectives

nGeneral objective

nTo determine the factors contributing to a high rate of female offenders among female juveniles in United States

nSpecific objectives

nTo determine how peer pressure among females influence juvenile female offences

nTo determine how substance use and abuse among females influence juvenile female offences

nTo determine how family problems affects the current trends in female offences

nNull hypothesisThere is no association between peer pressure and the high rate of female offences

n There is no association between substance use and abuse and female offences

nThere is no association between family problems and female offences

nHypothesisThere is an association between peer pressure and the high rate of female offences

nThere is an association between substance use and abuse and the high rate of female offences

nThere is an association between family problems and female offences

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nCHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEWEarly female criminality theories

nIt is only recently that the study of delinquency and crime acknowledged the role of delinquents in females with indifference. Many studies involving crime performed in the past did not give female juvenile offenders the same attention like that of male offenders (Lederman, & Brown, 2005). On the contrary, girls and women did not participate in these studies.

nEarlier studies have been hypothesizing that females are historically involved in criminal activities because of male sexuality, envy and morality reasons for their thinking in criminality. However, these theories flop to identify the real reasons of female offender behaviors. In this regard, they based their data on male behaviors and stereotypes of females in the society (Chesney-Lind, M., & Pasko, 2012). The early theories insufficiently account for differences in gender gender-based needs and female/male thinking patterns.

nHistorically, general theories of criminology on female offenders had no importance. This is because, majority of females acts of crime were family-based and emotional-based (Chesney-Lind, & Belknap, 2004). In the past, the judicial system rarely recorded female offenses, although few conceptual theories on criminology of females were developed.

nSome theories suggest that females commit acts of crime due to sexual deviancy. Secondly, a theory on “masculinity Hypothesis” suggest that criminality of females occurs because of male counterparts (Goldweber, Cauffman, & Cillessen, 2013). Therefore, this theory explains that a female will be involved in acts of crime because of their psychological and biological behaviors that are similar to those of male offenders (Zahn, (Ed.). 2009). In this respect, these theories suggest that females commit acts of crime since they are similar to men and behave as men.

nA theory by Freud Sigmund hypotheses the fundamental causes of female criminality. First, females are involved in crime because they undergo male inferiority complex hence they compensate through narcissistic and exhibitionistic behaviors (Leve, & Chamberlain, 2004). However, this theory is impractical today because there are many variables that differ today from the pasts. These variables affect behaviors of crime for women that were not contributing factors in earlier researches (Steffensmeier, Schwartz, Zhong, & Ackerman, 2005). Recent studies in female offences are infantile in similarities between studies of males offenders.

nChanging society

nChanging economic and social conditions, generational influences, family dynamics, environmental effects, technology, in females are contributing factors to growing trends in female offences. In addition, physiological changes, cultural traditions, psychological changes and sociological changes affect the new trends in female offences (Chesney-Lind, M., & Shelden, 2013). In the last few decades, the society has significantly changed and these factors have contributed to the rise in the rate of female delinquencies over the last few decades.

nOver the last four to five decades, females have empowered themselves. Consequently, they are against inequalities in the society that have led to new changes in the traditional roles of women in the society (Chesney-Lind, M., & Pasko, 2012). In the contemporary world, girls have very many choices as compared to the earlier generations where they under oppression by primitive traditions and roles.

nContemporary juvenile systems of justice

nFollowing the establishment of criminality and juvenile crime, the United States juvenile system of justice have changed and established into a male dominated system. The system was developed to cater for the needs, punishment and rehabilitations of the male juvenile offenders (Goldweber, Cauffman, & Cillessen, 2013). Historically juvenile justice systems were aimed to offer accommodations to juvenile male offenders because female offenders were very few. In addition, female delinquents were expected to adapt when put into a system oriented for males (Steffensmeier, Zhong, Ackerman, Schwartz, & Agha, 2006). However, research findings indicate that female needs and reasoning patterns are different from those of males (Lederman, & Brown, 2005). Ultimately, female delinquents cannot survive in a system designed for males. In the contemporary system of juvenile justices, it is aimed to punish delinquents rather than offer corrective programs. Therefore, for female offenders, the contemporary system can be counterproductive as compared to male offenders (Chesney-Lind, & Shelden, 2013). Further, the home setting teaches her that she is irresponsible.

nIn addition, the current systems do not attempt to understand the core reasons for female offender behaviors (Knoll, & Sickmund, 2010). The system may fail to identify the core reasons of female delinquencies such as substance abuse, peer pressure, early trauma and isolation before providing interventions services to the offender (DeLeon-Granados, Wells, & Binsbacher, 2006). Moreover, the systems promotes the female delinquents and increases their suffering and repetitive behaviors.

nIn the process of criminal justices such as arrest, disposition and release the female offenders experience gender bias. The current design of judicial systems can be attributed to gender bias in handling female offenders (Chesney-Lind, M., & Shelden, 2013). Further, the stakeholders involved in the system such as police, prosecutors, probations, judges and parents are contributing to gender bias in the system. In this regard, female offenders are unjustly charged with criminal offences such as truancy, running away and probation (Chesney-Lind, & Belknap, 2004).

nThe reason for this is attributed to stakeholders within the judicial system. This is because they have inadequate knowledge of the females needs, behaviors, and emotions (Goldweber, Cauffman, & Cillessen, 2013). Therefore, it becomes very easy for the girls to be arrested, punished and incarcerated.

nWays into the juvenile system of justice

nStudy findings revealed that many young females entering the juvenile system of justice have histories of emotional, physical and sexual abuse. In addition, more than 80 percent of the females with sexual and emotional abuse enter the juvenile justice system (Leve, & Chamberlain, 2004). Delinquent females also experience truancy, academic failure, family issues and conflicts, mental health disorders, domestic violence and control from older males (Chesney-Lind, M., & Pasko, 2012). Further, according to American Bar Associations and National Bar Association, female delinquency is usually associated to social and familial conflicts. Most notably, the majority of pathways for females into the judicial system are driven to her desire to be wanted, noticed and safety (Steffensmeier, Schwartz, Zhong, & Ackerman, 2005).

nSocial Learning theory: Attention, Peers and family

nUnderstanding the relationship of females and delinquency consist of having adequate knowledge and a clear understanding of adolescence development of females. In addition, it entails examination of history and past offenses for females (Goldweber, Cauffman, & Cillessen, 2013). One major component to the development of a girl is the connections and relationship that she establishes with others.

nPsychologists note that females enter adolescence with poorer self-competence than boys do. These include perceived physical appearance, self-worth, athletic, academic and social competence that may affect the girl to relate with antisocial peers (Zahn, (Ed.). 2009). This is because she does not feel satisfied and acceptable to other peers with positive behaviors and role models in her life.

nFurthermore, in an adolescent stage of development of a girl, traits tend to be affected by her desire to “be liked” and to “fit in. In this respect, females will normally stop excelling, develops less outspoken behaviors (Carrington, 2006). In addition, a girl chooses to be a follower rather than a leader since they are looking for acceptance from their peers. Therefore, a girl is usually preoccupied with social, personal and perfection appearances (Chesney-Lind, M., & Shelden, 2013). Additionally, adolescent girls tend to search for acceptance and attention and this attention can be either positive or negative.

nNormally, an adolescent female tends to be more emotional hence can react violently to outside authority personnel such as police officers, teachers, parents and probation officers (Leve, & Chamberlain, 2004). The emotional outburst characteristics are usually for self-defense against factors such as past trauma. However, an outside world regards these characteristics as violent, oppositional, aggressive and attention seeking (Lederman, & Brown, 2005). Most notably, families with a delinquent girl have a higher proportion of emotional mother-daughter conflict.

nFurther, circumstances of domestic violence are often common in homes with a female offender. Therefore, the delinquent female will seek for attention and acceptance from males older than she is (Chesney-Lind, 2004). This is because they view the older men as safe have from the family relationship that is full of conflict.

nSubstance abuse and Mental health issues

nStudy findings have noted that delinquent females have a record of maltreatment from violence and abuse. Therefore, the girls will make decisions to numb their mental and emotional pain of trauma during childhood with drugs and alcohol. Mental health disorders due to sexual and physical abuse, depression and anxiety are core risk causes for use and abuse of substances (Lederman, & Brown, 2005). In addition, psychiatric problems are key factors that lead to drug and substance abuse. Depressions in delinquent girls often occur, but it is not recognized as a fundamental cause of delinquent characteristics (Chesney-Lind, M., & Pasko, 2012). Females who have experienced maltreatment are usually more likely to run away from repeated victimization hence establishing their pathway into the juvenile justice system.

nTrends

nIn contemporary statistical trends, there is new interest in the relationship between delinquency and gender. However, the rate of female offence is still lower as compared to their male counterparts; the issue creates attention due to an increasing trend of female delinquents (Chesney-Lind, 2004). Interestingly, the rate of male delinquencies is declining while the trend in females delinquents is increasing (Zahn, (Ed.). 2009). The rate of female delinquent cases increased by 10 percent from 19 percent in 1990s to 29 percent in 2003.

nAdditionally, female arrests in 2004 accounted for more than 30 percent of all juvenile arrests, while more than 19 percent of violent juvenile arrests (Moretti, Catchpole, & Odgers, 2005). Further, female delinquencies accounted for more than 34 percent of the property crime Index of all juvenile arrests. Female delinquents contributed a higher percentage of total detainees as compared to male delinquents while boys are usually detained for more serious crimes relative to girls (Goldweber, Cauffman, & Cillessen, 2013). Besides, females are more likely than males to experience sexual victimization.

nFemales are also arrested at younger ages, for instance, more than 40 percent of all females are arrested for their first offense prior to the age of 12 years. Females are also involved in female gang membership (Steffensmeier, Zhong, Ackerman, Schwartz, & Agha, 2006). More than 28 percent of females in the last 30 years are involved in gang membership. Besides, females make up for more than one-third of criminal gang membership (Chesney-Lind, M., & Shelden, 2013). Since 1970, female criminal activities have increased by more than 140 percent. Females are more probably to become multiple drug users than males and they are more likely to use hard drugs such as cocaine and heroin (Zahn, (Ed.). 2009).

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nCHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGYResearch design

nThe study will use descriptive cross sectional research design. For this study, the descriptive survey design will enable the researcher to identify factors that contribute to increase in females delinquencies in the United States. The study design was considered appropriate for the research since it is concerned with reporting analyzing, describing, and recording events that occur or that have occurred (Knoll, & Sickmund, 2010). Descriptive design is extensively used to acquire useful data of the current cases of female offenders in a Juvenile Justice System (Chesney-Lind, M., & Pasko, 2012). The descriptive study will be useful because it will help the researcher to make recommendations on what need to be done to reduce the current trends in female delinquencies in the United States.

nVariables

nIndependent variables

nIndependent variables are objects or individuals that are not affected by other individuals or objects in the study. For this study, the independent variables will be factors such as peer pressure and substance use. These factors together with family problems, criminal history and mental health issues affect the trends of female offenders in the United States. In addition, Juvenile Justice System influences the female offenders behaviors because it does not cater for the needs and behaviors of females delinquents.

nDependent variablesDependent variables are factors that are likely to be influenced in a research. For this research, the dependent variables are female behaviors, needs, and ability to make decisions. Besides, females emotional and psychological effects are dependent variables. Both independent and dependent variables increase the rate of females criminal activity such as robbery with violence and forgery.

nStudy population

nThe target population is the population to which the investigator wishes to generalize the outcomes on the research. For this study, the target population is juvenile female offenders currently involved in the Juvenile Justice System in the United States. Besides, the study will target stakeholders in the juvenile justice systems such as judges in state judicial systems in United States. The study will also target professional gender practitioners who deal with female gender specific programming community. The researcher will also focus on “at risk” population (teenager girls) in order to determine the underlying causes of female delinquencies.

nResearch instruments

nThe researcher will design questionnaires and personal interviews for the target groups in the study i.e. female offenders, professional gender specific practitioners, at risk population and judicial system stakeholders. The study will use open-ended questionnaires. The research instruments will be used to capture data from the target groups in order to determine the reasons for the increasing trends in human delinquencies. These questionnaires will be similar to the audiences.

nData collection technique

nThe questionnaire for judges will be requesting data and information observed and collected from the members of the judiciary a long experience in hearing cases of juvenile offenses and detecting female juvenile trends and behaviors. The questionnaire will contain a cover letter describing the topic of the investigation, objectives of the project, and understanding what the research will be aimed to achieve. The questionnaire will attempt to assess the core reasons for the growing trend. The researcher will also use follow-up phone calls and conversations with the participants in the data collection process.

nProfessional gender specific practitioners will be given the same questionnaires as the judges. Thirdly, questionnaires for at risk population (teenage girls) will be designed to identify common problems why female offenses were happening. The researcher will ask personal questions such as drug and substance use and abuses, criminal history, family influences. The researcher will use gender specific PACE programs. Lastly, questionnaires will be delivered to juvenile female offenders who are currently involved in the juvenile justice system in jail systems. A short explanation will be issued to the female offenders for the intentions of this study. The female offenders will be asked to answer questions about juvenile histories and experiences.

nData AnalysisDescriptive statistics will be used to analyze the data. Quantitative data will be analyzed descriptively using frequencies and percentages. Then it will be presented using frequency tables, bars and pie charts. Qualitative data will be reported in narrative form.

nEthical ConsiderationThe researcher will obtain the ethical clearance letter from the Juvenile Judicial System in the sampled prisons. Informed consent will be obtained from the respondents after providing them with detailed information concerning the proposed study. Confidentiality of the data collected will be maintained by not sharing of the information with other respondents. Besides, anonymity of the participants will be maintained by not allowing them to write their names on the questionnaires.

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nAnnotated bibliography

nChesney-Lind, M., & Pasko, L. (2012). The female offender: Girls, women, and crime. Sage Publications.

nThe author use data from the Juvenile Justice Systems in Florida to test their hypothesis that family problems and drug abuse alters the attitudes, plans, values, decisions and expectation of women hence contributing the rise in female offences. They find that their hypothesis is strongly supported in young females. Family problems such as physical and sexual abuse increased the vulnerability of mental health for female offenders.

nChesney-Lind, M., & Shelden, R. G. (2013). Girls, delinquency, and juvenile justice. John Wiley & Sons.

nThe researchers used the juvenile justice systems in the United States to test their hypothesis that peer pressure is a contributing factor to the rising cases of female offenders. They found their hypothesis strongly supported in juvenile offenders serving in the different jails. The peer pressure affects young females, while the effects were fewer in studies of young males.

nLederman, C. S., & Brown, E. N. (2005). Entangled in the shadows: Girls in the juvenile justice system. Buff. L. Rev., 48, 909.

nThe authors use the secondary data to investigate the causes of high rate of female delinquencies in United States. The authors identify different causes of female offences such as peer pressure, substance use and abuse, mental health and histories of offences among females. The author also provides several recommendations to the government to reduce the current trend.

nGoldweber, A., Cauffman, E., & Cillessen, A. H. (2013). Peer Status Among Incarcerated Female Offenders: Associations With Social Behavior and Adjustment. Journal of Research on Adolescence.

nThe researcher at Juvenile System in California uses data from incarcerated female offenders to test the hypothesis that peer pressure among adolescent females contributed to their arrest. They find that their hypothesis is positively related in incarcerated females in the juvenile justice systems. Many females in the prison noted that peer pressure contributed to their arrest.

nSchwartz, J., & Steffensmeier, D. (2012). Stability and change in girls delinquency and the gender gap: Trends in violence and alcohol offending across multiple sources of evidence. In Delinquent Girls (pp. 3-23). Springer New York.

nThe authors use the case study in New York City to show the rising cases of female offenders. They investigated the rising concerns of alcohol and drug use in connection with cases of female delinquencies among adolescent females. They found that the rising trends of female offenders are because of use of alcohol and other hard drugs among adolescent females.

nChesney-Lind, M., & Belknap, J. (2004). Trends in delinquent girls aggression and violent behavior: A review of the evidence. Aggression, antisocial behavior, and violence among girls, 203-220.

nThe authors investigated the new trends in delinquent behaviors among adolescent females. They found that females have increasingly developed violent, antisocial and aggression behaviors. They linked these behaviors with rising trends of female offenders.

nSteffensmeier, D., Schwartz, J., Zhong, H., & Ackerman, J. (2005). AN ASSESSMENT OF RECENT TRENDS IN GIRLS’VIOLENCE USING DIVERSE LONGITUDINAL SOURCES: IS THE GENDER GAP CLOSING?. Criminology, 43(2), 355-406.

nThe authors use this paper to investigate the rising trends of female offenders in juvenile justice systems. They investigated the underlying reasons why female offences are increasing while juvenile male cases are declining. They used the secondary data to review the cases in different states in United States.

nZahn, M. A. (Ed.). (2009). The delinquent girl. Philedelphia: Temple University Press.

nThe author uses the paper to analyze the Juvenile Justice Systems because most of them are male oriented systems. The paper demonstrates the current system does not cater for the needs of the delinquent girls. Therefore, the author compares the female and male justice system aimed at understanding the causes of rise of female delinquencies.

nCarrington, K. (2006). Does feminism spoil girls? Explanations for official rises in female delinquency. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 39(1), 34-53.

nThe author compares the rise of female offenders in Australia and New Zealand. The author identifies that peer pressure among the adolescent females is contributing factor to the rise of female delinquent behaviors in these countries.

nChesney-Lind, M. (2004). Girls and violence: Is the gender gap closing. National electronic network on violence against