Education in Kashmir, India: An International Relations Perspective

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nIndia has the second highest population in the world with approximately 900 million people. The country is made up of people of diverse religions, ethnic and languages. The main religious groups of India are Hindus, Sikhs, Muslims, Christians and Buddhists (Dorschner, 2002). These groups are broadly categorized into two i.e. Hindu and non-Hindu which comprise a population of 74 per cent and 16 per cent respectively (Duschinski, 2008). The education systems in India incorporate the Hindu cultures and myths. Hindu myths, stores and beliefs form part of the syllabus pursued in various learning schools (Altbach, 2005). Muslims are one of the minority groups in India and the systems of education do not incorporate the creation of madrasa for Muslim children (Berkey, 2007). However, in the state of Jammu and Kashmir Muslim make up the highest proportion of Muslims. The state comprises three regions namely, Jammu, Ladakh and Kashmir.

nJammu and Kashmir faces serious challenges in the systems of education due to high levels of illiteracy, high rate of drop-out, poor teacher-pupil ratio. In addition, it faces poor absorption pattern of educated individuals (Qasim 2000). Due to the conflict between India and Pakistan over Kashmir, the number of militant activities has greatly increased which leads to political disturbances. This factor acts a hindrance to the growth and development of education in Kashmir region (Duschinski, 2008). The illiteracy level in Jammu and Kashmir is 42 per cent where the illiteracy for men and women is 35:60 per cent respectively. Political environment in Jammu and Kashmir is not conducive for the growth and development of education in the region.

nThere is emergency of armed insurgency militants in Kashmir that demand for independence of Jammu and Kashmir. Pakistani Islamist groups who have declared Jihad against the Hindu infidels influence the systems of education (Dorschner, 2002). Kashmiri fighters backed by Pakistan target Indian army and security forces hence this tug of war have transformed Jammu and Kashmir into a war zone (Qasim 2000). For instance, Lashkar e-Tayyiba (LeT) is an Islamist Militant group in Pakistan that uses Pakistan territory to cause chaos in the region of Kashmir. Pakistan army and Inter-services Intelligence (ISI) support it (Shah, 2014). This has adversely affected the Indo-Pakistani international relations.

nPublic and Private Education

nThe state government of Jammu and Kashmir in 1970 developed its own education board and university. In the state of Jammu and Kashmir, the education system is divided into pre-primary school, primary school, middle school, high school, college and university levels (Altbach, 2005). Jammu and Kashmir State Board of School Education runs the public education. The board recognises both public and private schools. However, the board does not recognise the madrassa institutions. Moreover, the board conducts examination in class eight, ten and twelve. Furthermore, the government of India provides for Kendriya Vidyalayas for secondary education.

nAccording to recent census statistics, the systems of education in Jammu and Kashmir have developed over time. For instance, the report indicated that more than 1.5 million students are enrolled for the education (Duschinski, 2008). The Hindu language is serves as the medium of instruction in school in Jammu and Kashmir (Altbach, 2005). The state government is responsible of increasing the primary school in rural regions in order to eradicate higher illiteracy levels in the region.

nIn addition, the state of Jammu and Kashmir uses the Indian pattern of 10+2 in schooling. The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBDE) is responsible of providing Kendriya Vidyalayas in secondary schools and Indian army school in the region. Some of the schools in Jammu and Kashmir include, Jawahar Navodaya, KC public schools, Army schools and air force schools. A number of private schools in Jammu and Kashmir cater for the education to children of the elite individuals (Subrahmanyam, 2012). Public schools provide for education for the less fortunate people and the Tibetan refugees.

nFurthermore, there are number of reputable institutions of higher learning in Jammu and Kashmir. These colleges and universities provide for post graduate and undergraduate courses to learners (Duschinski, 2008). Some of the reputable institutions of higher learning include Government College for women, Amar Singh Government College, Government College for boys, Government College Benima and Government college of Fine Arts and Music. Besides, there is university of Kashmir that offer courses in various disciplines of arts, science and commerce (Altbach, 2005). It also offers postgraduate courses in Masters and Ph. D to students who have graduated in their field of study.

nAll the colleges in the state of Jammu and Kashmir are Affiliate Colleges of University of Kashmir. Moreover, the University of Kashmir reserves special seat for students who have graduated from the affiliate colleges of the university (Duschinski, 2008). Therefore, there is seat reservation for scheduled caste, tribes and OBCs.

nIn addition, the education system in the state of Kashmir not only provides general courses but also provide professional courses. Therefore, it is a destination of pursuing professional studies in the field of medicine, law, engineering, architecture and veterinary sciences (Lall, & House, 2005). These professional courses are provided to both male and females to cater for the rising demands.

nNevertheless, the administrative infrastructure and educational facilities in Jammu and Kashmir are not fully established. Therefore, due to several challenges that face education system in the state many residents do not pursue their higher education in institutions of higher learning (Altbach, 2005). In addition, there are limited number of international students who seek their higher education in Jammu and Kashmir universities and colleges. The government of India and state government of Kashmir have adopted strategies f improving the system of education in the state by constructing more schools, colleges and universities. This is aimed to attract foreign students to study in the state.

nMadrassa

nMadrassa are religious schools that have been associated with growth of extremist jihadist movements in Kashmir and Pakistan. In addition, madrassa contribute to sectarian intolerance, which have promoted the activities of insurgency groups in Kashmir such as LeT (Berkey, 2007). Pakistan borders the country of Afghanistan that was once controlled by Taliban government. In madrassa, a student is referred to as Talib and the plural is Taliban (Tellis, 2010). Madrassa teaches Muslim education that facilitates religions sciences, law, the Quran as well as other Islamic course. After U.S invasion in Afghanistan in 2001 against the Taliban government, Pakistan Taliban has emerged.

nPakistan government and Inter-services Intelligence support these radical groups. Madrassa has been perceived as school of terrorism due to emergence of terrorism radical movements in Pakistan and Afghanistan (Dorschner, & Sherlock). Prior to introduction of Islam in Kashmir, the majority of people were Hindu. However, sailors, merchants and religious mendicants introduced Islam in the region (Tellis, 2010). Many people therefore, adopted Islam in the subgroup of Sufi. Sufi Muslims advocated for non-violence, tolerance, and openness contrary to radical Muslims. Sufi Islam spread throughout the region of south Asian especially in Kashmir (Berkey, 2007). The Sufi Islam also developed madrassa in south Asian. Madrasa are funded from the mosques.

nHowever, in the current educational system in India, the government does not support education in madrassa. This is because the government believe that madrassa produce young individuals brainwashed in Islamic studies that is of little use to the modern Indian demands (Qasim 2000). In addition, the government believe that radical Islamists groups in Kashmir and Pakistan easily influence these young people (Berkey, 2007). For instance political parties in India, frequently attack the madrassa which are estimated to be more than 40, 000.

nSince the terror attack in U.S in 2001, the government of Pakistan has been urged to crack down madrassa because the Islamic bombers studied in madrassa. Nevertheless, there are report that several Muslims have gone through madrassas and have come out to complete the modern system of education (Shah, 2014). These individuals have become vocal in advocating for major reforms of laws in India for madrassa (Berkey, 2007). Besides these individual have become major critics of the government of India that does not support the creation of madrassa.

nMany argue that madrassa are institutions that teach Islamic knowledge and how Muslims can be truthful, punctual and fair. This is contrary to the government of India stance that the institutions promote terrorism in Kashmir (Tellis, 2010). India is emerging as an economic powerhouse but Muslim youths continues to live in shackles of poverty and out-dated systems of education in madrassas continue to suffer to meet their daily needs.

nThere are continued efforts to call for a change in attitudes against the perception of the Muslims. However, radical and hard-line elements among the Indian Muslims continue to affect the relationships on madrassa education. In this regard, the Indian government continues to resist reforms on madrassa, which leads to increased poverty among the Muslims because many young people cannot secure employments (Tellis, 2010). On the other hand, poor Muslim parent continues to send their children to madrassa because of provisional of free food and education.

nRadical madrassa such as Darul-Uloom Deoband continues to exist in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. These radical groups limit the right of women especially on voting rights. The political systems in India have used double standards in dealing with the madrassa issue and Muslims in general (Tellis, 2010). This is because of the general perception that the Muslim institutions of education are managed by hard-line elements, portraying a pro-Muslim image.

nDropout rate in Jammu and Kashmir

nCensus reports of 2009 indicate that due to introduction of mid-day meal programs in the state, the dropout rate have recorded significant decline. The dropout rate is high in grade one which stands at 13.2 per cent (Lall, & House, 2005). However, the rate reduces from grade one to grade eight to one per cent. There is also higher rate of dropout rate in male as compared to female (Duschinski, 2008). The main reasons for drop out are lack of interest in studies, poor economic status of the family, insecurity and due to domestic chores.

nFollowing drop out from school, children are involved in child labour, idling and helping their parents (Lall, & House, 2005). There is an increase the state literacy rate to 65 per cent. In addition, the literacy rate for male is more than that of female

nEmployment in Jammu and Kashmir

nThe state of Jammu and Kashmir has the highest rate of unemployed youths in India. Report findings indicate that more than 30, 000 graduates and seven thousands post graduates in the state are jobless. The government of India has promised to handle the alarming rate of unemployment in Jammu and Kashmir (Lall, & House, 2005). Government records have also revealed that there are more than 6000 postgraduates in Jammu while more than 4000 postgraduates in the state of Kashmir valley remain unemployed (Spencer, 2013). In addition, Jammu and Kashmir is seriously affected by crises of unemployment. The state has more than 240 000 of its educated youths uneducated.

nFurthermore, there are more than 5000 registered degree holders of engineering while approximately 9000 diploma holders are jobless (Duschinski, 2008). In the entire Indian records, Jammu and Kashmir has the highest rate of unemployment among the educated youth, which stands at 5 per cent (Lall, & House, 2005). Besides, the unemployment rate for female is the higher as compared to the national records. Female unemployment stands at 20 per cent as compared to national statistics of 4 per cent.

nNeo realism

nKashmiris has been demanding for greater autonomy and more human rights from their oppressors – Indian government. The state of Jammu and Kashmir has been entitled to substantial amount of autonomy under Article 370 of Indian constitution (Spencer, 2013). However, the Kashmiris have been subjected human right violation and unfair elections from the Indian government. Furthermore, there are high rate of unemployment among the educated Kashmiris.

nThis form of discrimination, in education, political and economic has led to the growing concerns of neorealism among the Kashmiris. Kashmir separatist motivation has led to on-going conflict in the region (Ganguly, 2014). In pre realism context, Kashmir has been discussed with regard to Indo-Pakistan war (Spencer, 2013). The political negotiation does not offer a lasting solution to the perennial crisis in Jammu and Kashmir (Dorschner, 2002). Various scholars have argued that Kashmir conflict involves both old battle and new battle that can only be solved through dynamic ground of neo realism and neo-liberalist approaches.

nThese approaches will help to remove system of injustices ad dominant forces of colonialism. In addition, it will help to return power back to the poor and voiceless Kashmiris in the region (Bruno, 2014). Further, it will help improve the system of education in Jammu and Kashmir by making it subject-oriented and improving quality. In this regard, policy makers in this region can apply the alternative off subaltern identity as a new perspective to long-term solution in Kashmir (Spencer, 2013). In addition, subaltern identity will also expand scope of neo-liberalism and neo-realism in the region. Subaltern is an neorealism perspective that rejects the predominant principles of nationalism and bias based on the historical injustices.

nNeo liberalism

nIn this era of neo liberalism, the rights of girl child in Jammu and Kashmir are not guaranteed. More women do not attend school hence do not secure employment in major government vacancies (Thachil, 2009). Besides, the government reports indicate that in Jammu and Kashmir there are females who do not attend school in the region especially higher education. In this regard, institutions of higher learning should be privatized in order to improve efficiency and promote quality education.

nKashmir educational system has inadequate facilities; hence, privatization will help in improving the conditions of learning. Furthermore, this will help the citizens living in the region against insecure and highly militarized region (Thachil, 2009). Young people in Jammu can only be provided equal opportunity through expanding the private sector of education. The privatization of education will help the young people to view the world as a liberalized economy that will help in achieving economic prosperity.

nConstructivist Approach

nThe Pakistan and Indian government have designed attempts to construct social identity in Kashmir that is in line with each country’s national identity. However, there are several insurgents groups with the region that resist the government attempts to centralize the region (Dorschner, 2002). These groups are trying to form a new identity in order to make an independent Kashmir. Through the constructivist approach, a national identity can be created by helping the local people to have legitimate authority.

nThe conflict in Jammu and Kashmir is a complex issue due to the diverse culture, religion and language. Therefore, due to historical injustices and political division, the region lacks national identity (Political science 61 2008). Indian and Pakistan have attempted to use nuclear weapon in the conflict. This has not only endangered the lives of Kashmiris but has negatively affected the systems of education. In addition, learners feel unprotected by the government that lays claim over them.

nTherefore, the government should use the systems of social construction that ensures free and fair elections. This will be a true way to construct Kashmiri identity. In addition, it will help to develop systems of education, as investors will have confidence to work in the region (Political science 61 2008). Further, Kashmiri identity can be constructed by limiting unchecked military power in the region (Bruno, 2014). Military has been using excess power to arrest and detain people including students. Therefore, rights and dignity of Kashmiri should be guaranteed for the sake of good education in the region.

nReferences

nAltbach, P. G. (2005). Higher education in India. Education in India, 1, 244.

nBerkey, J. P. (2007). Madrasas medieval and modern: politics, education, and the problem of Muslim identity. Schooling Islam: The culture and politics of modern Muslim education, 40-60.

nBruno, J. (2014). The Foreign Circus: Why Foreign Policy Should Not Be Left in the Hands of Diplomats, Spies and Political Hacks. Bittersweet House Press.

nDorschner, J. P. (2002). A New Response to the Kashmir Dispute Department of Social Sciences, United States Military Academy 42(1), 74-99

nDorschner, J. P. (2002). An Indian Assault on Terrorism –The Military Option Department of Social Sciences, United States Military Academy August 2002 42(1), 74-99.

nDorschner, J. P., & Sherlock, T. Radicalism and Education in Pakistan.

nDunne, T., Kurki, M., & Smith, S. (Eds.). (2013). International Relations Theories. Oxford University Press.

nDuschinski, H. (2008). “Survival Is Now Our Politics”: Kashmiri Hindu Community Identity and the Politics of Homeland. International Journal of Hindu Studies, 12(1), 41-64.

nGanguly S., (2014) India’s Two Futures, The Upcoming Election Is More Than an Ideological Showdown. Council of Foreign Relations

nLall, M., & House, C. (2005). The challenges for India’s education system. Briefing Paper ASP BP, 5(03).

nPolitical science 61 (2008) Introduction to International Relations, Glossary of Key Terms In International Relations

nQasim Zaman, M. (2000). Religious education and the rhetoric of reform: The madrasa in British India and Pakistan. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 41(02), 294-323.

nShah, R. K. (2014). The Al-Qaeda and the Lashkar-e-Toiba: A Case of Growing Ideological Homogeneity?. India Quarterly: A Journal of International Affairs, 70(2), 87-104.

nSpencer, D. (2013). The Subaltern Kashmiri: Exploring Alternative Approaches in the Analysis of Secession. Hydra, 1(1), 77-84.

nSubrahmanyam K., (2012) India’s Grand Strategy, Knowledge, not weapons, will be the currency of power in this century. The Indian Express Limited

nTellis A. J. (2010) Bad Company: Lashkar-e-Tayyiba and the Growing Ambition of Islamist Militancy in Pakistan. Subcommittee on the Middle East and South Asia.

nThachil, T. (2009). Neoliberalism’s Two Faces in Asia: Globalization, Educational Policies, and Religious Schooling in India, Pakistan, and Malaysia. Comparative Politics, 473-494.